Abstract
Purpose: This study aims to provide empirical evidence of how supervisors’ positive feedback plays a crucial role in newcomers’ task performance in the first 90 days of their employment.
Design/methodology/approach: Data for this study were collected from newcomers and their immediate supervisors in a large high-tech manufacturing company in northern China. The study used a structured questionnaire to gather data from 229 newcomer-supervisor dyads, which were analysed through the application of structural equation modelling.
Findings/results: The findings revealed that supervisors’ positive feedback positively affects newcomers’ task performance. The supervisors’ positive feedback enhances the task performance of newcomers’ by promoting energy and information seeking at work. In addition, the study also revealed that intrinsic motivation as a moderator strengthens the relationship between supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ energy at work.
Practical implications: Organiszations should place emphasis on supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ level of intrinsic motivation in order to attain better performance in the workplace.
Originality/value: This study highlights the need for organisations to pay attention to the dual roles of supervisors’ positive feedback and the intrinsic motivation of newcomers’ in improving task performance. Supervisors’ positive feedback boosts newcomers’ energy at work and aids their task performance when intrinsic motivation is high rather than low.
Keywords: positive feedback; energy at work; conservation of resources; tool; performance; workplace.
Introduction
Feedback is one of the most constructive inputs in any learning process (Kuchinke, 2000; Salas, & Rosen, 2010). Some researchers (Alder, 2007; Bartram & Roe, 2008; Eckert, Ekelund, Gentry, & Dawson, 2010; Madzar, 1995; Salas & Rosen, 2010) have argued that the effect of the feedback on improving task performance has received wide acceptance. Employees may receive feedback as a result of the work itself in the workplace; however, this type of feedback is not enough to guarantee employees’ success (Hackman, 1980). Any type of feedback that originally comes from the supervisors has a substantial effect on the receiver’s performance in the workplace (Bechtel, McGee, Huitema, & Dickinson, 2015). Generally, feedback plays a vital role in developing and maintaining individuals’ future career performance (Smither & London, 2002). The effects of supervisors’ feedback on employees’ creativity and task performance have been investigated by previous researchers (Li, Harris, Boswell, & Xie, 2011; Zhou, 2003), For example, Dashing and O’Malley (2011) argued that feedback can positively affect task performance. However, Kluger and DeNisi (1996) have argued that there are situations in which feedback negatively affects task performance. Therefore, more work is required to understand and clarify under what conditions feedback will lead to both negative and positive outcomes in the workplace.
In light of the above, this article develops different ways of improving feedback. First, empirical research on the contribution of positive feedback and its contextual antecedents has remained scarce (Krasman, 2010). Only a few researchers have investigated the effects and contributions of positive feedback on employees’ task performance (Fishbach, Dhar, & Zhang, 2006). Second, previous research has focused on workers’ relationships, job satisfaction, and commitment in their organisation, but not on the behaviours of newcomers within feedback situations. Thus, it is necessary to study how newcomers feel and perform when they receive positive feedback from supervisors’ in the workplace. Third, positive feedback works well when there is a symptom of progress within the worker’s task performance (Fishbach et al., 2006). In other words, positive feedback does not always have a positive effect. There are possible situations in which positive feedback may have a negative effect on an individual’s performance (Leslie & Taylor, 2005). Therefore, to address these issues, we developed a model to examine the dual roles of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ task performance with the intrinsic motivation as a moderator.
To investigate the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ task performance, we adopted the conservation of resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1988, 1998). Conservation of resources theory focuses on people’s inspiration in terms of accessing new resources and preserving existing resources in the workplace. We believe that supervisors’ positive feedback is treated as a form of resource investment, which makes positive contributions to retaining existing resources, protecting the workplace from resource loss, and gaining new resources through future outcomes (Hobfoll, 1988, 1998). As appraisal-based stress theories are challenging, COR theory has gained wider acceptance (Antonovsky, 1979; Baltes, 1987; Bandura, 1997). We believe there is a gap in regard to the effects of the dual roles of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ task performance in the workplace. Conservation of resources theory is exclusively appropriate to apply the situations, as it is capable of suggesting possible answers to the observed gaps in the literature through its use of specific pros and cons of resources use as described below.
We also consider the intrinsic motivation responses to supervisors’ positive feedback. According to COR theory (Hobfoll, 1988, 1998), individuals with many resources stand a better chance of obtaining future gains. Employees who have high level of intrinsic motivation may be better set up for future gains in the workplace. Some scholars have also explored the effects of intrinsic motivation on newcomers’ task performance. As Ryan and Deci (2000) argued, intrinsically motivated employees have higher levels of persistence and performance than those who have low levels of intrinsic motivation. When people are unconcerned about accuracy, the feedback they receive from any leader feel negligible making them overconfident (Armor, Massey, & Sackett, 2008). On the other hand, some people claim that overconfidence (feeling better than others) is a motivated outcome that happens in the workplace (David, Heath, & Suls, 2004). These observations suggest that intrinsic motivation can moderate the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ energy and overconfidence at work.
The study makes three fruitful contributions to the extant literature. First, we contribute to the COR theory by exploring the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ task performance. It has been argued that feedback helps employees to perform well (Smither & London, 2002). Using COR theory, this research adds to the existing literature on how and when positive feedback positively and negatively affects newcomers’ task performance. The existing literature on COR theory has focused on resources that are acquired initially, which will lead to resource gain in the future (Hobfoll, 1998). But our study investigates a situation in which initial resource gain leads to resource gain (energy at work) in one way and resource loss in the future (overconfidence) in other way. Second, we contribute to information-seeking studies. During socialisation, information seeking helps newcomers to reduce uncertainty and to be proactive in the workplace (Berger, 2011). Supervisors’ feedback as part of the organisational support available plays a constructive role in information seeking and task performance in the workplace (Ioannides & Loury, 2004; Munshi, 2003). As noted by Odean (1998), there are situations in which overconfident speculators tend to overestimate their capacities in terms of the accuracy of the information they have, as a result, they passively depend on their information. In our study, we examine these situations in order to help scholars understand how information-seeking mediates newcomers’ energy at work, alongside their overconfidence and task performance in the first 90 days of the their employment.
Finally, we contribute to studies on supervisors by examining the effects of the supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ task performance. On the one hand, the positive feedback they receive from their supervisors’ makes newcomers highly energetic and successful in terms of information seeking. On the other hand, because of supervisors’ positive feedback, newcomers may experience feeling of overconfidence, which makes them less sensitive to information seeking and leads to poor results in task performance.
Literature and theoretical background
Feedback has the power to create a positive working team in the workplace (Li et al., 2011; Zhou, 2003), as supervisors’ feedback for employees is a valuable input and it can facilitate employee’s performance in the workplace (Zhou, 2003). Some researchers have argued that giving feedback can have positive effects on employees’ motivation and lead to better performance in the workplace (Bandura, 1997, 1999; DeNisi & Sonesh, 2011; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996; Vancouver & Morrison, 1995). According to DeNisi and Sonesh (2011), positive feedback makes employees motivated regarding good behaviour and performance. Previous studies have argued that positive moods, such as those caused by receiving positive feedback from supervisors’, in our context can enhance employees’ task performance (Erez & Isen, 2002). Others have also argued that task performance can be influenced by the positive information employees have in the workplace (George, 1989). Therefore, this study mainly explores the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ task performance in the first 90 days of their employment.
Research hypotheses
Supervisors’ positive feedback and energy at work
The first part of the model depicted in Figure 1 shows the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ energy at work. Supervisors’ feedback given to employees is key for organisations in regard to boosting competitive advantages (Albrecht, Bakker, Grumen, Macey, & Saks, 2015), and for employees in regard to motivation for better performance (McCarthy & Garavan, 2006). The degree to which a worker is mentally inspired in the workplace can be expressed as energy at work (Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, & Ryan & Deci, 2000; Ryan & Frederick, 1997). Feedback is an institutional resource that supervisors’ use for inspiring, motivating, and directing employees in order for them to attain better performance (Ashford & Cummings, 1983). Supervisors’ feedback has the power to increase employees’ efforts (the energy they invest) in regard to their work performance and it can also internally motivate them, and shape their attitude (Alfes, Shantz, Truss, & Soane, 2013; Lonsdale, & Stewart, 2016). To boost their team’s performance, supervisors invest resources in their employees (Tepper, Moss, & Duffy, 2011). In line with this thought, COR theory posits that supervisors’ positive feedback as a resource investment helps newcomers to gain new resources or retain the existing resources (Hobfoll, 1998, 2001). This implies that supervisors’ resources (feedback) have the power to motivate employees to attain better performance. Some researchers have argued that, positive feedback as a source of motivation reinforces employees’ achievements through energy at work (DeNisi & Sonesh, 2011; Kluger & DeNisi, 1996). Thus, supervisors’ positive feedback makes newcomers’ more energetic in the workplace. The more the newcomers receive positive feedback from their supervisors, the more energetic they will be in the workplace. Thus, we formulated the following hypothesis:
H1: Supervisors’ positive feedback positively affects newcomers’ energy at work.
Supervisors’ positive feedback and overconfidence
Individuals frequently have imperfect information about their performance and, abilities, and may even have incorrect information about others (Moore & Healy, 2008). Overconfidence is the act of incorrectly holding an excessively positive view of one’s own capacities (Moore & Healy, 2008). It has been defined across three different categories, (1) overestimation of one’s actual performance, (2) the incorrect placement of one’s performance as being better than others, which we consider in our study, and (3) extreme inaccuracy in one’s beliefs. Overestimation and over placement were defined by Grieco and Hogarth (2009) as scenarios in which employees understate the performance of others and believe they are better than others. The first area of expertise, skill or knowledge acquired is the sources of overestimation of one’s capacity (Alicke, 1985). In the same scenario, the positive feedback employees received from their supervisors made newcomers value themselves highly and feel overconfident.
The literatures posits that, feedback is key to achieving better results in the workplace (Linderbaum & Levy, 2010; Smither & London, 2002). However, there is a common argument that positive feedback always leads to better performance. Limited research considers the negative effects of positive feedback. Often, receiving feedback and prizes have less effect on task performance than may be expected, even when leading to feelings of overconfidence (Bandura, 1997). When employees receive positive feedback, it indicates the partial achievement of a goal, with the implication that less effort is required to be successful (Carver & Scheier, 1998; Higgins, Hartley, & Skelton, 2000). Supporting this line of thought, positive feedback from supervisors within a short time period leads newcomers to feel less energetic and experience feelings of overconfidence in the workplace. Therefore, we argue that supervisors’ feedback leads newcomers to feelings of overconfidence. Thus, the overconfidence hypothesis predicted that the supervisors’ positive feedback makes newcomers feel as if they are better than others, resulting in high levels of overconfidence. Thus, we formulated the following hypothesis:
H2: Supervisors’ positive feedback has a positive effect on newcomers’ overconfidence in the workplace.
The moderating role of intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation causes the act of doing something without any external reward (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Researchers have argued that there is some sort of cause and effect relationship between organisational help (feedback) and workers performance (Colquitt, LePine, & Noe, 2000; Kraiger, 2003). We believe that intrinsic motivation may represent a key variable that can be used as a moderator. Researchers suggested that intrinsic motivation and task performance are highly correlated (Kuvaas, 2006; Piccolo & Colquitt, 2006; Zapata 2009). Our main argument is that, supervisors’ positive feedback makes newcomers feel energetic and sometimes overconfident, but this situation will be more or less pronounced depending on their level of intrinsic motivation. Thus, supervisors’ positive feedback influences newcomers’ energy and overconfidence at work. Intrinsically motivated employees are more energetic in the workplace and work constructively (Deci & Ryan, 2000). For instance, first, intrinsically motivated employees are more energetic and active than those who are less intrinsically motivated (Gagne & Deci, 2005). Second, intrinsically inspired employees are in all probability more energetic than others (Ryan & Deci , 2000). Finally, as mentioned by Sheldon and Kasser (1995), intrinsic motivation confers energy when human beings choose to work on various duties, since they find the work interesting, their involvement will be more vital, excited, and energetic. We thus argue that, intrinsic motivation can moderate the indirect effect of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ energy at work.
On the other hand, because of motivation, some individuals experience overconfidence and want to be better than others in regard to different issues, such as honesty (Brown, 2011), and being accepted by others (Zuckerman & Jost, 2001). Alicke and Govorun (2005) also argue that overconfidence is promoted by the motivation within a person, but is not causally linked to intrinsic motivation. We tested how such overconfident behaviour can be managed using intrinsic motivation in regard to newcomers in the workplace. According to COR theory (Hobfoll, 1988, 1989, 1998), initial resource loss will lead to resource loss in the future. As a result of supervisors’ positive feedback, newcomers may feel overconfident, but this can be mediated by intrinsic motivation. Therefore, intrinsic motivation weakens the relationship between supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ overconfidence in the workplace. We thus formulated the following hypotheses:
H3a: Intrinsic motivation may strengthen the positive effect of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ energy at work. Such effects will be most pronounced when newcomers’ intrinsic motivation is high rather than low.
H3b: Intrinsic motivation may weaken the positive effect of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ overconfidence. Such effects will be most pronounced when newcomers’ intrinsic motivation is high rather than low.
Although there are rapid improvements being made in this area, investigations into situational factors that affect newcomers’ information seeking are limited (Ashford & Dark, 1996). Employees information-seeking behaviour is influenced by situational factors in the workplace, which will also affect task performance (Werner et al., 2016). Highly energetic workers tend to spend more time and energy on their information searches (Seiders, Flynn, Berry, & Haws, 2015). Connected to this, newcomers with high levels of energy at work can have great deal of desire to information seeking in order to enhance their performances. Energy is equipped with the ability to make job performance attractive in a number of ways. First, the literature has proved that when employees are energetic, it generally has a dynamic effect on their information-seeking performance (De Lange et al., 2006; Wealthy et al., 2010). Second, without energy, employees’ efforts to participate in information seeking will be challenged. When employees are energetic, they tend to have a great deal of desire to seek information (Quinn, Spreitzer, & Lam, 2012). To summarise, we argue that newcomers’ energy at work has a positive noteworthy impact connected to information seeking during the first 90 days of their employment. Thus, we formulated the following hypothesis:
H4: Newcomers’ energy at work has a positive effect on information seeking.
Many researchers have argued that overconfidence has a negative effect on employees’ performance in the workplace. First, a study on trade performance suggested that there is a negative relationship between overconfidence and information seeking because overconfident workers underestimate market uncertainty (Biais, 2004). Related to this, newcomers who have received positive feedback from their supervisors’ may underestimate the value of that feedback, and thus be less sensitive to information seeking. According to COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989), the inconsistent impact of resource loss (feelings of overconfidence) is seen as having a high impact on resource loss (poor information seeking). Second, overconfident investors tend to overestimate their capacities or the exactness of their information (Odean, 1998). Thus, they usually depend on only the information they have at the time. In this manner, we believe that overconfidence makes newcomers depend on only their information which they have at a time. Third, a significant level of overconfidence in one’s expectations of one’s own success may motivate individuals to limit their information searching (Zacharakis & Shepherd, 2001). When employees are overconfident, they restrict their desire for information seeking (Cooper, Folta, & Woo, 1995; Harvey & Green, 1994; Mahajan, 1992). Thus, we formulated the following hypothesis:
H5: Newcomers’ overconfidence at work has a negative effect on information seeking.
The partial mediation of information seeking
Information seeking can enhance employees’ performance and narrow the gap between employees’ knowledge and performance (Khaddage, Knezek, & Baker, 2012). However, the relationship between information seeking and employees’ performance depends on the context at hand. When employees experience overconfidence, their motivation to seek information will be too limited in some contexts and too high in other. Many researchers have argued that there is a negative relationship between overconfidence and information seeking (Anderson, Baker, & Robinson, 2015, Calcagno & Monticone, 2013; Georgarakos & Inderst, 2011). As a result of dependency on self-information, overconfident individuals are less eager to seek information from other sources in the workplace. We posit that, as a result of supervisors’ positive feedback, newcomers feel overconfident which results in them becoming less sensitive to information seeking, ultimately impacting their task performance. Therefore, information seeking can mediate the relationship between newcomers’ overconfidence and task performance in the workplace.
Information access is often considered as better direction for employees (Arnone, Cascio, & Parenti, 2019). Allen (1996) argued that employees who seek information during their socialisation processes are more energetic in the workplace. Employees information seeking is influenced by organisational constraints such as the context of the information seeking (Dervin, 1997; Johnson & Johnson, 1996, 2003). Researchers have argued that, when newcomers are motivated by colleagues or leaders, they tend to be very eager to seek information (Cummings, 1983). This implies that their leader’s motivation is a cause for employees’ energy in the workplace. Therefore, supervisors’ positive feedback followed by energy at work can influence employee’s task performance. Information seeking ensures that newcomers’ energy at work can contribute to the enhancement of one’s capability to carry out the assigned tasks (Figure 1). Therefore, the relationship between newcomers’ energy at work and task performance can be strengthened by information seeking. Thus, we formulated the following hypotheses:
H6a: Information seeking mediates the relationship between newcomers’ overconfidence and task performance.
H6b: Information seeking mediates the relationship between newcomers’ energy at work and task performance.
Research methodology
Sample and procedures
Data were collected in four rounds, each round separated by 15-days, from newcomers and their immediate supervisors in a large high-tech manufacturing company in northern China. ‘Newcomers’ in our context refers to employees who joined the company less than 6 months ago. Initially, we visited the company in order to obtain permission from the CEO to conduct the study. After receiving permission in collaboration with the company’s human resource department (HRD), we described the aim of the study, invited respondents, and assured the confidentiality of their responses. Based on the list of respondents obtained from the HRD we assigned numbers to each newcomer and their direct supervisors in order to identify newcomer-supervisor dyads. Measurement instruments used for data collection were in English. To check the reliability and validity of our measurements, we used double translation method (Brislin, 1980).
Surveys were sent to 322 newcomers and their supervisors at four separate intervals. A gap of 2 weeks was maintained between each of the four rounds of data collection to minimise potential common method bias and reduce respondent fatigue (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). After that, the newcomers and their supervisors were asked to complete printed questionnaires. We provided a sealed envelope with a pen inside, and a questionnaire for each participant. The newcomers were asked to report the control variables, their supervisors’ positive feedback, and their level of intrinsic motivation during Time 1. Of the 322 newcomers, 278 returned completed questionnaires with a response rate of 86.3%. Two weeks later, the newcomers who had completed the first survey reported their energy at work and overconfidence at Time 2. Of the total participants, 215 newcomers completed the survey at Time 2 with a response rate of 66.7%. At Time 3, the newcomers were also asked to rate their level of information seeking. Supervisors were asked to evaluate the performance of the newcomers at Time 4. From the total 322 newcomer-supervisor dyads, complete data were obtained from 229 newcomers with a response rate of 71.11%. After we collected all of the valid questionnaires, we gave 30 Chinese yuan to the participants who had actively participated in the surveys, as a token of our gratitude.
Measures
Supervisors’ positive feedback
Supervisors’ positive feedback was evaluated by newcomers using a scale from Steelman, Levy and Snell (2004). This feedback scale assesses a number of feedback dimensions. A sample item is: ‘My supervisor gives me useful feedback about my job performance’ (alpha = 0.97).
Task performance
Newcomers’ task performance was measured by supervisors using five items from Tsui, Pearce, Porter and Tripoli (1997). An example item is: ‘This employee performs the core job tasks very well’ (alpha = 0.91).
Information seeking
Newcomers’ information seeking was measured using five item scale and seven-point Likert-type response scale (one = almost never, seven = very frequently) from Van de Walle, Ganesan, Challa-Galla and Brown (2000). A sample question is: ‘How often do you seek information about your job performance?’ (alpha = 0.96).
Intrinsic motivation
Intrinsic motivation was assessed by five items previously validated by Dysvik and Kuvaas (2006). We used a seven-scale item ranging from one (strongly disagree) to seven (strongly agree). An example item is: ‘My job is meaningful’ (alpha = 0.91).
Energy
Energy is a naturally situational variable that varies on a day-to-day basis. Therefore, we used four scale items from existing measures (Cohen, Kessler, & Gordon, 1995; Van Katwyk, Fox, Spector, & Kelloway, 2000). Respondents answered the items each morning, every 15 days before starting their work. Their answers were measured on a seven-point Likert-type scale ranging from one = not at all to seven = very much. The items were preceded by ‘This morning I feel ….’ (alpha = 0.95).
Overconfidence
The measures of overconfidence that we focused on are over-estimation and over-placement, or the behavioural bias by which one can be too optimistic because of the availability of an objective ‘right’ estimate. Moore and Healy (2008) have therefore made a subtle distinction between over-placement and over-precision, even though these terms might seem to be observationally equivalent. In this study, we use and measure overconfidence in the form of over-placement.
Control variables
To investigate the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ task performance, we considered several factors in our analyses. Specifically, we included gender as a control variable since it affects personality development (Caspi et al., 2005; Roberts & Mroczek, 2008). Furthermore, even though most of the participants were in the same age group and had recently graduated, they differed slightly in age (e.g. because of delayed school entry or repeated classes). We, therefore, included age as a control variable.
Ethical considerations
This article followed all ethical standards for research without direct contact with human or animal subjects.
Results
The means, standard deviations, and correlations among our variables of interests are shown in Table 1. Note that intrinsic motivation does not correlate with any other variables. Supervisors’ positive feedback given to newcomers and supervisor-rated task performance is positively related to all other variables. Supervisors’ energy at work is negatively related to supervisors’ overconfidence and information seeking.
| TABLE 1: Means, standard deviations and correlations of variables (n = 229). |
Hypotheses testing
The results are presented in Figure 2. The fit indices of the whole model showed that the data fit the model well (χ2(9) = 25, Comparative fit index (CFI) = 0.949, TuckerLewis index (TLI) = 0.897, Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) = 0.088, Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) = 0.058). Hypothesis 1 and Hypothesis 2 posit that supervisors’ positive feedback given to newcomers is positively related to energy at work (β = 0.502, p < 0.001), and overconfidence (β = 0.357, p < 0.001). Thus, Hypotheses 1 and 2 are supported.
Hypotheses 3a and 3b posit that newcomers’ intrinsic motivation may enhance the positive effects of supervisors’ positive feedback given to newcomers on their energy and overconfidence at work. To investigate these elements, the interaction term of supervisors’ positive feedback given to newcomers and intrinsic motivation was introduced into the model. The results showed that the interaction is positively related with energy at work (β = 0.344, p < 0.001), while it is not related significantly to overconfidence (β = –0.042, ns). Figure 3 shows the moderated effect of newcomers’ intrinsic motivation on the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback given to newcomers on energy at work. Thus, Hypothesis 3a is supported and Hypothesis 3b is not supported.
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FIGURE 3: The moderating effect of intrinsic motivation on supervisors’ positive feedback. |
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Hypothesis 4 proposed that newcomers’ energy at work has a positive effect on information seeking, which is supported with a positively significant effect (β = 0.558, p < 0.001). Hypothesis 5 indicating that newcomers’ overconfidence at work has a negative effect on information seeking is supported with a negatively significant coefficient (β = –0.388, p < 0.001). Thus, both Hypothesis 4 and Hypothesis 5 are supported.
To test the mediation effect of information seeking, a sample of 2000 Monte Carlo replications using the parameter bootstrap method was employed. The results showed that the indirect effect of newcomers’ energy at work on task performance via information seeking is 0.310 (95% CI = [0.194, 0.439]). The negative indirect effect of newcomers’ overconfidence on supervisor-rated task performance is –0.215 (95% CI = [–0.304, –0.143]). Thus, Hypothesis 6a and Hypothesis 6b indicate that information seeking mediates the relationship between newcomers’ energy at work and task performance, as well as the relationship between newcomers’ overconfidence at work and task performance, are both supported.
Discussion
Our study aims to provide insight into the contributions of supervisors’ positive feedback to newcomers’ task performance during the employees’ first 90 days at work. Our results demonstrate that supervisors’ positive feedback has a positive effect on newcomers’ task performance during the first 90 days. Specifically, supervisors’ positive feedback efforts are positively associated with newcomers’ energy at work and information seeking, which results in better task performance. Grounded in COR theory (Hobfoll, 1988, 1989, 1998), we formulated and verified a model that links supervisors’ positive feedback with newcomers’ task performance in order to study factors of newcomers’ performance in the workplace.
This study also emphasises the importance of intrinsic motivation as a moderator of supervisors’ positive feedback and, newcomers’ energy and overconfidence at work. Our results suggested that intrinsically motivated employees are more energetic in the workplace and are more inclined to work constructively (Deci & Ryan, 2000). On the other hand, intrinsic motivation has no effect on the relationship between supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ overconfidence in the workplace. Overall, by taking into account the high level of intrinsic motivation they have, our study revealed that newcomers who receive positive feedback from their supervisors can perform well.
Theoretical implications
In harmony with COR theory, we developed a model that explains how supervisors’ positive feedback affects newcomers’ task performance in the workplace. The current study has several important theoretical implications. In particular, we extend the COR theory to newcomer task performance in three ways. First, we enrich COR theory studies by providing evidence of the role of supervisors’ positive feedback in improving newcomers’ task performance during the first 90 days. Specifically, our findings suggest that supervisors’ positive feedback can positively affect newcomers’ task performance. Past research on COR theory (Bandura, 1997) has focused on the basic assumption that initially resource gain will lead to advantages in acquiring resources in the future (Schlenker & Gutek, 1987; Thibaut & Kelley, 1959), not the dual role of the initial gain in the workplace.
Second, the contribution of intrinsic motivation to shaping newcomers’ behaviour and task performance in the workplace should be among the key focus areas for organisations. This works best when newcomers have high levels of intrinsic motivation. Our study argues that, newcomers with high levels of intrinsic motivation can strengthen the association between supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ energy at work in the workplace, such that newcomers with high levels of intrinsic motivation exhibit high levels of energy at work (Figure 1). Therefore, our study yields a new theoretical perspective in which intrinsic motivation moderates the association between supervisors’ positive feedback, newcomers’ energy and, overconfidence at work during their first 90 days in the workplace.
Third, we have demonstrated how information seeking acts as a mediator between newcomers’ energy at work, their overconfidence and their task performance. This is important because it facilitates the direct testing of hypotheses grounded on the philosophies of COR theory, which have thus far been examined exclusively based on qualitative analysis. Overconfidence as a form of cognitive bias may result in failure to access and appropriately use information in the workplace (Kahneman & Tversky, 1996). The result of our study extends the extant understanding of how supervisors’ positive feedback influences newcomers’ overconfidence and task performance during the first 90 days. Finally, by developing theory-based assumptions, we have contributed to the development of the feedback literature from newcomers’ perspective.
Practical implications
Our study also has practical implications. For example, a record-breaking 8.2 million students are graduating from Chinese universities every year (China Ministry of Education, 2019). Therefore, organizations’ desire to attract and retain newcomers will be high. Investigating factors related to newcomers’ task performance during their first 90 days at work is therefore vital. Our results also have practical implications for organisational insiders. For instance, in dynamic business environments supervisors play a crucial role in the betterment of employee performance in the organisation (Nathan, Mohrman, & Milliman, 1991). However, previous researchers have not investigated the role that supervisors’ positive feedback plays in improving newcomers’ performance. Our study shows that positive feedback from supervisors’ plays a vital role in helping newcomers to increase their task performance in the workplace. Moreover, to emphasise how to achieve better performance within a short period of time, newcomers often depend on organisational insiders’ feedback mainly supervisors’ positive feedback as a basis for better task performance in the workplace. Without the effective management of supervisors’ feedback, newcomers may become careless, which may eventually affect their task performance. Therefore, supervisors as agents of the organisation are responsible for feedback issues, situations, and effects in regard to newcomers in the organisation.
Finally, our study highlights the contribution of intrinsic motivation during the first 3 months of employment to newcomers’ task performance. This study can help organisations to consider situations in which supervisors’ positive feedback is influenced by newcomers’ intrinsic motivation. Organisations are thus advised to make use of intrinsic motivation to maximise employees’ performance in the workplace. The results of this study also suggest that, besides the human resources orientation, supervisors’ feedback is constructive for bettering their performance (Bauer & Erdogan, 2011; Klein & Polin, 2012).
Limitations and future research
In addition to the contributions stated above, this study has some limitations. First, besides supervisors’ positive feedback, newcomers may be motivated by feedback given by other co-workers. Second, this study was conducted only on newcomers who are working in a high-tech manufacturing company in northern China. Therefore, it may not be possible to generalise the results of this study to other types of firms and workers. Nevertheless, we believe this study is important for the concerned parties. Third, this study considers intrinsic motivation as a moderating variable in regard to supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ energy at work on one hand, and supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ overconfidence on the other. Therefore, future researchers may benefit from investigating other potential factors that may influence newcomer’s performance during their first 3 months at work. For instance, supervisors’ negative feedback given to newcomers, emotional labour as a moderator and the effects of these elements on employees’ performance may be fruitful areas for future research. Finally, this study covers newcomers for the first 90 days of their employment. Therefore, future researchers may address the effects of supervisors’ positive feedback on newcomers’ performance over a longer period of time.
Conclusion
Despite these limitations, our findings alert researchers and consultants to the critical role played by supervisors’ positive feedback and intrinsic motivation in newcomers’ task performance. Much of the management literature focuses on acquired knowledge as a means by which to increase employees’ task performance in the workplace, but our findings provide insights beyond the acquired knowledge promoted by supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ intrinsic motivation, which both plays crucial roles in effective task performance in the workplace. Intrinsic motivation plays a moderating role on supervisors’ positive feedback and newcomers’ energy at work. Overall, our study shows that supervisors’ positive feedback is a powerful way of boosting newcomers’ task performance, and this effect will be more practical when intrinsic motivation is high.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the high-tech manufacturing company management teams, the supervisors and the newcomers for the input in delivering this publication.
Competing interests
The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.
Authors’ contributions
All authors contributed equally to this work.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for -profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the authors, and the Publisher/s.
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