Original Research

Creating innovation without ‘superstars’: A configurational approach to innovative work behaviour in Vietnamese digital enterprises

Nuong T. Le

Received: 20 Jan. 2026; Accepted: 26 June 2026; Published: 01 Aug. 2026

Copyright: © 2026. The Author. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Purpose: This study addresses a critical limitation in innovative work behaviour (IWB) research, which has predominantly relied on net-effect models that provide a narrow understanding of how innovation emerges. By focusing on isolated relationships, prior approaches fail to capture how personal and organisational conditions interact to jointly shape IWB. Consequently, this research adopts a configurational perspective to examine how a combination of resources collectively fosters innovative outcomes.

Design/methodology/approach: Integrating Conservation of Resources (COR) theory and the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) model, the study utilises a dual-analytic approach. While partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) establishes measurement validity and a symmetrical benchmark, fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) serves as the primary technique for identifying configurational pathways among 595 employees in Vietnamese digital enterprises.

Findings/results: Results demonstrate that no single condition is necessary for high IWB, revealing multiple equifinal configurations. Two dominant patterns are identified: synergistic resource alignment and compensatory resource substitution (Institutional Scaffolding), where organisational conditions effectively offset deficits in individual personal resources. The findings also reveal causal asymmetry, indicating that the drivers of high IWB differ fundamentally from those associated with its absence.

Practical implications: Managers should move beyond ‘one-size-fits-all’ approaches, focusing on the strategic alignment of job autonomy and organisational support to democratise innovation beyond ‘superstar’ employees. This offers an evidence-based blueprint for firms in emerging markets, such as South Africa, to sustain innovation despite persistent talent shortages.

Originality/value: The study contributes by shifting the focus from isolated net effects to configurational causation. By introducing a resource substitution logic, it challenges ‘superstar-centred’ views and positions fsQCA as a robust methodology for capturing complexity and equifinality in innovation processes.

Keywords: innovative work behaviour; fsQCA; resource substitution; emerging economies; institutional scaffolding; Vietnam; South Africa.

Introduction

Digital transformation has emerged as a defining force reshaping organisational practices across the Global South, fundamentally altering how firms compete and innovate. In countries such as Vietnam and South Africa, national digital transformation programmes aim for the digital economy to contribute significantly to gross domestic product (GDP) by 2030 (Prime Minister of Vietnam, 2020; Urban & Wood, 2017). However, the success of these ambitions hinges primarily on employees’ capacity to continuously generate, promote and implement new ideas – a process defined as Innovative Work Behaviour (IWB) (De Jong & Den Hartog, 2010; Janssen, 2000). Despite the strategic importance of IWB, digital enterprises in emerging markets frequently operate under conditions characterised by institutional voids, uneven support infrastructures and persistent shortages of digitally ready talent (Khanna & Palepu, 2010; World Bank, 2021). While digital transformation offers immense opportunities for innovation, it simultaneously introduces systemic uncertainty that affects employee security (Verhoef et al., 2021). In such volatile environments, IWB is no longer a discretionary activity or a mere organisational option; rather, it has evolved into a critical survival strategy for firms navigating rapid technological shifts amidst severe resource constraints.

A critical research problem arises from the traditional, Western-centric reliance on ‘resource-rich’ individuals – the so-called innovative superstars – to drive organisational change. Dominant theoretical frameworks, such as the Job Demands–Resources (JD–R) model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Demerouti et al., 2001) and Conservation of Resources (COR) theory (Hobfoll, 1989; Hobfoll et al., 2018), typically assume that innovation is a discretionary activity enabled by an abundance of personal resources (Anderson et al., 2014; Parker et al., 2017). However, these assumptions are increasingly unsustainable in hierarchical, resource-scarce contexts where the ‘war for talent’ is intensified by brain drain and inadequate skill pipelines (Urban & Wood, 2017). In these contexts, where innovation serves as a survival-oriented response to resource scarcity rather than a luxury of abundance, prevailing models implicitly privilege the superstar professional archetype. By focusing on linear consequences, they overlook alternative pathways – such as collective structures and institutional protection – through which innovation may emerge independently of elite individual agency (Farh et al., 2007). Consequently, there is a pressing need to investigate how structural job resources can act as a functional substitute for personal resource deficits, a survival-driven mechanism herein defined as Institutional Scaffolding.

The current research addresses this gap by adopting a configurational approach to investigate IWB among 595 employees in Vietnamese digital enterprises. Vietnam serves as an ideal laboratory for exploring resource substitution, as its rapid digitalisation is frequently hindered by transitional institutional frameworks and acute talent shortages. These conditions directly mirror the systemic challenges faced by the South African technology sector, where firms similarly grapple with significant digital skill gaps and a pressing need for inclusive innovation models (Bhorat et al., 2023; Urban & Wood, 2017). Consequently, the findings from the Vietnamese context offer potentially transferable insights for South African managers, providing an evidence-based blueprint on how to architect organisational scaffolding to sustain innovation-led survival amidst persistent talent scarcity.

Methodologically, the study moves beyond the symmetrical assumptions of prior bivariate approaches (Garg & Dhar, 2017) by foregrounding fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), which is well suited to examining complex causal relationships and the principle of equifinality, whereby multiple configurations of conditions may lead to high IWB (Fiss, 2011; Misangyi et al., 2017). Building on this configurational perspective, the study contributes to the literature on innovation management in emerging economies in several ways. Firstly, it extends COR theory by providing empirical support for a resource substitution logic, demonstrating that organisational resources may compensate for limitations in individual personal resources. Secondly, it refines the JD–R model by highlighting the role of perceived organisational support (POS) as a contextually relevant enabling condition that can legitimise risk-taking in hierarchical and high power-distance settings. Thirdly, the application of fsQCA enables the identification of an ‘institutional scaffolding’ configuration, offering a context-sensitive explanation of how firms may sustain innovative activity without relying solely on scarce high-level talent. Taken together, these contributions provide nuanced and contextually grounded insights for managers navigating digital transformation in resource-constrained environments.

Theoretical development and configurational propositions

A configurational perspective on innovative work behaviour

Traditional research on IWB has predominantly relied on variance-based approaches, which assume linear, additive and symmetrical relationships between antecedents and outcomes (Anderson et al., 2014). Within this perspective, personal and organisational resources are typically modelled as independent predictors whose net effects accumulate to influence innovation. However, as noted in the South African business context, these linear models often provide only a fragmented understanding of how innovation emerges in complex, resource-constrained environments (Urban & Wood, 2017).

Drawing on complexity theory, this study adopts a configurational perspective, which conceptualises organisational phenomena as the outcome of interdependent and mutually reinforcing conditions (Misangyi et al., 2017). From this viewpoint, innovative behaviour arises from combinations of conditions – causal recipes – that jointly produce an outcome. Two foundational principles underpin this approach. Firstly, equifinality suggests that multiple, distinct configurations of conditions can lead to the same outcome (Fiss, 2011). Secondly, causal asymmetry posits that the causes of an outcome’s presence are not simply the inverse of the causes of its absence (Woodside, 2014). This logic is particularly salient in emerging digital economies such as Vietnam and South Africa, where firms operate amid institutional voids and persistent talent shortages, necessitating non-linear strategic responses (Urban & Wood, 2017).

Integrating conservation of resources and job demands–resources: From resource accumulation to resource configuration

To theoretically ground this configurational perspective, this study integrates COR theory (Hobfoll, 1989) and the JD–R model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). Conservation of Resources theory posits that individuals are motivated to obtain and protect resources, and that behaviour is shaped by the dynamics of resource gain and loss (Hobfoll et al., 2018). A key concept is that of resource caravans, which refer to clusters of resources that accumulate and reinforce one another (Hobfoll, 2012). Complementing this, the JD–R model explains how personal resources, such as psychological capital (PsyCap) and job resources, such as autonomy and organisational support, jointly interact to influence motivation and performance (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). In South African organisations, these resources have been shown to be critical for cultivating innovative behaviour amidst environmental uncertainty (Mathafena & Grobler, 2020).

However, in resource-constrained environments, the assumption of simultaneous resource abundance is often unrealistic. Extending COR theory, this study advances a resource substitution logic, whereby certain resources may compensate for the absence of others. Organisational resources – particularly job autonomy and POS – can function as external reservoirs that reduce perceived resource loss and legitimise risk-taking (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Furthermore, skill variety is conceptualised as a structural job resource that enhances cognitive flexibility and exposure to diverse problem-solving situations (Morgeson & Humphrey, 2006). By requiring the application of multiple skills, the organisation creates a task-based ‘resource caravan’ that stimulates the ideation phase of innovation, particularly in technology-intensive digital enterprises.

Configurational pathways to innovative work behaviour

The synergistic pathway: Resource-rich configurations

From a COR perspective, individuals endowed with high PsyCap and digital readiness possess strong internal resource caravans that enhance their ability to cope with uncertainty (Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017). Psychological capital provides resilience and optimism (Luthans et al., 2007), while digital readiness equips individuals with the competencies required for technologically intensive environments (Vial, 2019). However, personal resources require enabling structural conditions, such as job autonomy, to be effectively deployed (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). This harmony between internal capabilities and external support is essential for high-level innovation (Nonyana et al., 2025).

The compensatory pathway: Institutional scaffolding

While the synergistic pathway reflects a resource-rich scenario, it is less representative of emerging economies where capable employees are scarce (Khanna & Palepu, 2010). Extending the COR theory, this study proposes a compensatory pathway in which organisational resources substitute for deficiencies in personal resources. Together, high job autonomy and POS form an institutional scaffolding that supports innovation from the outside in. This extends the superstar-centred view of innovation (Anderson et al., 2014) by demonstrating that strategic organisational design can foster innovation even among employees with modest digital readiness (Nonyana et al., 2025).

Causal asymmetry and the absence of innovation

The absence of innovation cannot be explained simply by reversing the conditions associated with its presence (Woodside, 2014). In the context of IWB, low levels of innovation are the consequence of distinct configurations characterised by resource depletion or misalignment. For instance, the simultaneous absence of both PsyCap and organisational support may create conditions where innovation is perceived as excessively risky (Hobfoll et al., 2018).

Configurational propositions

The configurational propositions are as follows:

• P1 (Equifinality of Innovation Pathways): Innovative work behaviour arises from multiple, equifinal configurations of resources rather than from independent net effects (Fiss, 2011).
• P2 (Synergistic Resource Configuration): Configurations aligning strong personal resources with supportive organisational conditions are sufficient for high IWB.
• P3 (Resource Substitution via Institutional Scaffolding): Configurations where strong organisational resources (e.g. POS) compensate for weaker personal resources are sufficient to produce high IWB.
• P4 (Causal Asymmetry of Innovation Outcomes): The configurations leading to high IWB do not mirror those leading to its absence (Woodside, 2014).
• P5 (Non-necessity): No single personal or organisational resource is individually necessary for high IWB; rather, the outcome is contingent upon the interdependent combination of specific conditions.

Taken together, these propositions guide the configurational analysis and are examined using fsQCA to identify multiple causal pathways leading to IWB, as illustrated in Figure 1.

FIGURE 1: Configurational framework of innovative work behaviour.

Methodology

Consistent with the study’s configurational objectives, this research employs a dual-analytic strategy that prioritises fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA) as the primary approach while utilising partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) in a supporting role to establish measurement integrity and baseline relationships.

Sample and data collection

This study employed a cross-sectional survey design targeting professionals within the Vietnamese digital sector. This context is particularly salient as it represents a rapidly digitising emerging market characterised by institutional voids and talent shortages – challenges that directly mirror the current digital landscape in South Africa (Mhlungu et al., 2019; Urban & Wood, 2017).

Data were collected using a purposive sampling technique to ensure that respondents had sufficient experience with digital transformation processes. To guarantee data validity, participants were selected based on three strict inclusion criteria: (1) currently working full time in technical specialist or managerial roles within enterprises operating in the digital or technology sector, thereby ensuring direct exposure to organisational changes; (2) having a minimum of 1 year of continuous involvement in active digital transformation initiatives (e.g. system migration, digital product development or agile workflow adaptation) and (3) possessing sufficient professional experience to reflect on workplace dynamics, consistent with the sample distribution where over 76% of respondents held more than 5 years of experience. Preliminary screening questions based on these criteria were administered at the beginning of the survey, and only eligible respondents were permitted to complete the questionnaire. A total of 595 valid responses were obtained. As shown in Table 1, the sample includes a wide range of roles (including technical specialists and managers) and professional experience, providing a robust and heterogeneous basis for configurational analysis.

Measurement scales

All constructs in this study were operationalised using 5-point Likert scales, ranging from 1 (‘Strongly Disagree’) to 5 (‘Strongly Agree’), with instruments adapted from established literature to ensure content validity. Specifically, PsyCap was measured using eight items adapted from Luthans et al. (2007) and Luthans and Youssef-Morgan (2017), covering self-efficacy, hope, optimism and resilience. Digital readiness (DR) was assessed with five items from Parasuraman (2000) to evaluate employees’ adaptability to technology. Both job autonomy (AU) and skill variety (SV) utilised three-item scales from Morgeson and Humphrey (2006) to measure work-method independence and the diversity of required skills, respectively. Work engagement (WE) consisted of nine items adapted from Schaufeli et al. (2006), focusing on vigour, dedication and absorption. Perceived organisational support was measured via six items from Eisenberger et al. (1986) to capture employees’ beliefs regarding organisational care. Finally, IWB was operationalised with six items from Scott and Bruce (1994) and De Jong and Den Hartog (2010), encompassing idea generation, promotion and implementation.

To ensure linguistic and conceptual equivalence, a rigorous back-translation process was conducted by two independent bilingual experts. Furthermore, the instrument underwent a content validity review with academic experts and senior managers in the Vietnamese technology sector to ensure the items were contextually appropriate for digital enterprises. During this review, minor adjustments were made to refine professional business terminology and align with the standard corporate vocabulary used in Vietnamese digital firms. For instance, in the POS scale, terms such as ‘strongly cares about my well-being’ were carefully nuanced in Vietnamese (e.g., using ‘quan tâm đến phúc lợi và đời sống’ rather than a literal translation of ‘well-being’) to accurately capture the perceived paternalistic support typical in Vietnamese corporate culture. Similarly, certain abstract items in the PsyCap scale were rephrased to ensure technical specialists and line employees could easily comprehend them without semantic ambiguity, thereby maximising linguistic validity and reducing cognitive fatigue during response selection.

Addressing common method bias

Given the self-reported nature of the data, both procedural and statistical controls were implemented to mitigate potential common method bias (CMB). Procedural measures include ensuring strict anonymity for respondents and informing them that there were no right or wrong answers.

Statistically, two tests were performed. Firstly, Harman’s single-factor test indicated that the largest factor accounted for only 32.4% of the total variance, well below the 50% threshold. Secondly, a full collinearity assessment was conducted. All inner variance inflation factor (VIF) values were below the 3.3 threshold, ranging from 1.42 to 2.15 (Kock, 2015). These results collectively confirm that CMB does not threaten the integrity of the findings.

Analytical strategy: Prioritising configurational complexity

This study foregrounds fsQCA to capture the non-linear drivers of innovation. The analysis followed a two-step protocol.

Partial least squares structural equation modelling phase

Utilised as a diagnostic tool to validate the measurement model (reliability, convergent and discriminant validity) and to illustrate the presence of linear associations as a limited point of comparison.

Fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis phase

Employed as the primary analytical lens to identify the ‘causal recipes’ leading to high IWB. This approach accounts for equifinality (multiple paths to the same outcome) and causal asymmetry.

While WE is modelled as a mediator in the PLS-SEM analysis to examine its indirect effect within a linear causal framework, it is treated as a causal condition in fsQCA to reflect the study’s configurational logic. This dual treatment is consistent with prior research emphasising that variables may assume different roles across methodological approaches, as fsQCA focuses on combinations of conditions rather than isolated net effects. Accordingly, WE is incorporated as a contextual condition that may interact with other resources to form multiple sufficient configurations leading to IWB.

Calibration procedure

Continuous latent variable scores were transformed into fuzzy sets using a direct calibration method with three anchors based on the sample distribution: the 95th percentile (full membership), the 50th percentile (crossover point) and the 5th percentile (full non-membership) (Fiss, 2011; Ragin, 2008).

Results

Measurement model and baseline net effects

To establish a foundation for the study, a partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) analysis was initially conducted to examine the baseline relationships between the studied constructs. As shown in Table 2, all constructs demonstrate satisfactory reliability and convergent validity, with Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) exceeding 0.80, and average variance extracted (AVE) above the 0.50 threshold.

As shown in Table 2, the measurement model meets all standard requirements for reliability and validity, with Cronbach’s alpha and CR values exceeding 0.80 and AVE values above 0.50. In the structural model, all hypothesised direct associations are statistically significant (p < 0.001). The reported effect sizes (f²) range from 0.044 to 0.204. Specifically, while several predictors exhibit small effect sizes, WE (f² = 0.204) and POS (f² = 0.122) demonstrate moderate substantive explanatory power. These varying effect sizes, coupled with the fact that the linear model explains 42% of the total variance in IWB (R² = 0.42), indicate that no single resource acts as a dominant ‘silver bullet’ for fostering innovation. This suggests that traditional symmetrical approaches may oversimplify the complex, interdependent nature of innovation drivers. Consequently, these empirical results provide a strong mandate for the subsequent configurational analysis. By moving beyond net-effect estimations, the following fsQCA explores how these resources combine in asymmetrical and equifinal patterns to achieve high IWB, particularly in contexts where certain individual resources may be scarce.

Analysis of necessary conditions

Prior to identifying the causal configurations, a necessity analysis was performed to determine whether any single resource is a mandatory prerequisite for high IWB. Following the established standards in configurational research, a consistency threshold of 0.90 was utilised to identify necessary conditions (Ragin, 2008). The selection of this conservative, higher threshold, rather than the more lenient 0.80 often used for exploratory sufficiency testing, was deliberately intended to reinforce the empirical rigour of our findings. In qualitative comparative analysis, a condition must demonstrate an exceptionally high and non-trivial consistency score to be meaningfully interpreted as a strict prerequisite. Adopting the 0.90 baseline protects the model from Type I error (false positives), ensuring that any claims regarding resource necessity have robust explanatory certainty within the volatile environment of digital transformation.

The results presented in Table 3 indicate that none of the examined conditions, whether present or absent, meets the 0.90 threshold. This confirms that no single factor is a necessary condition for the occurrence of high IWB in digital enterprises.

Notably, job autonomy (0.892), POS (0.868) and skill variety (0.852) demonstrate high consistency scores that approach the threshold, suggesting that while these organisational resources are highly relevant, they are not indispensable. This finding is theoretically significant as it reinforces the configurational logic of this study: innovation does not depend on universal prerequisites but is instead generated through specific, interdependent combinations of resources.

The empirical evidence from this necessity analysis provides strong support for Proposition 5 (non-necessity). By demonstrating that even critical resources such as digital readiness and organisational support are not individually sufficient in isolation for innovation, the study shifts the focus towards how these conditions are strategically combined to drive outcomes in resource-constrained environments.

Configurational analysis of highly innovative work behaviour

The sufficiency analysis identifies multiple configurations associated with high levels of IWB, as detailed in Table 4. The overall solution consistency (0.919) and coverage (0.871) exceed the recommended thresholds, indicating that these configurations are both reliable and empirically relevant.

The results provide robust empirical evidence for the principle of equifinality, confirming that within the complex ecosystem of Vietnamese digital enterprises, there is no single path to fostering innovation. Instead, innovative behaviour emerges from two overarching patterns: synergistic resource alignment and compensatory resource substitution.

The synergistic pattern is exemplified by Solution 1 (Digital champion) and Solution 3 (Supported innovator), in which internal personal capabilities are reinforced by external organisational resources. Specifically, Solution 1 characterises the profile of ‘digital elites’, in which high levels of PsyCap, digital readiness, WE and job autonomy converge. In this pathway, individuals possess a surplus of psychological and technical resources that lowers their perceived risk threshold, allowing them to initiate innovation even without explicit organisational backing. Similarly, Solution 3 identifies the ‘supported innovator’, in which high PsyCap and job autonomy are activated by strong POS. Notably, in this configuration, high digital readiness is not a prerequisite, as POS functions as a critical cultural catalyst that legitimises risk-taking and creates a safe environment for experimentation.

In contrast to these resource-rich scenarios, Solution 2 (Institutional scaffolding) represents a compensatory pathway that is particularly significant for resource-constrained emerging economies. This configuration reveals that high levels of IWB can still be achieved even in the absence of high PsyCap, digital readiness and WE. In this ‘scaffolding’ mechanism, the robust presence of job autonomy, skill variety and POS functionally substitutes for individual-level deficits. By establishing a robust institutional support mechanism, the organisation enables the ‘average’ workforce to contribute to innovation without requiring elite internal psychological reservoirs or extraordinary drive. This finding confirms that strategic organisational design can effectively ‘crowd in’ innovation even when human capital is temporarily depleted or lacks specific technical skills.

Causal asymmetry in innovation drivers

Beyond equifinality, the configurational findings provide compelling evidence for the principle of causal asymmetry, indicating that the drivers of innovation are not merely the mirror image of the factors that inhibit it. While traditional linear models often assume a symmetric relationship in which the absence of a driver implies the absence of the outcome, this study demonstrates that high IWB is achieved through specific, complex recipes of resource alignment or substitution.

The presence of both synergistic and compensatory pathways suggests that the decline of innovation is likely the result of distinct patterns of resource depletion or misalignment, rather than a simple lack of individual factors. This reinforces Proposition 4, confirming that the pathways leading to high IWB are fundamentally asymmetric to those leading to its absence. For management, this implies that preventing the decline of innovation requires a different set of interventions than those used to spark it, necessitating a nuanced understanding of how resources are combined within the specific organisational context.

Discussion

The findings of this study offer a configurational understanding of IWB, moving beyond the limitations of traditional net-effect models. Consistent with the principle of equifinality, the results demonstrate that multiple, distinct configurations of personal and organisational resources can lead to high levels of innovation. The identification of the digital champion, supported innovator and institutional scaffolding pathways provides strong empirical support for Proposition 1, reinforcing the view that innovation is not driven by a single dominant factor but emerges from alternative combinations of conditions. This challenges variance-based assumptions that emphasise the linear accumulation of resources (Anderson et al., 2014; Parker et al., 2017) and instead supports a complexity-informed perspective in which outcomes arise from interdependent causal structures (Fiss, 2011; Misangyi et al., 2017).

The supplementary symmetrical analysis further underscores the limitations of net-effect approaches. Although statistically detectable associations are observed, their modest explanatory power suggests that examining predictors in isolation provides only a partial understanding of innovation. This reinforces the value of a configurational approach, which captures the interdependence and contextual sensitivity of multiple conditions in shaping IWB (Pappas & Woodside, 2021; Woodside, 2014).

A key theoretical contribution of this study lies in the identification of the institutional scaffolding configuration, which provides strong support for Proposition 3 (resource substitution). This pathway demonstrates that high levels of IWB can be achieved even in the relative absence of strong personal resources, provided that organisational conditions – such as job autonomy, skill variety and POS – are sufficiently developed. This finding challenges the dominant ‘superstar’ perspective in the innovation literature (Anderson et al., 2014) and instead highlights the role of organisations as active enablers of innovation. In this context, organisational resources function as external reservoirs that compensate for individual limitations, thereby extending COR theory by illustrating how resource investment can be structurally facilitated rather than solely individually driven (Hobfoll et al., 2018).

In contrast, the digital champion and supported innovator configurations illustrate the importance of synergistic resource alignment, thereby supporting Proposition 2 (synergistic resource configuration). In these pathways, personal and organisational resources interact in a mutually reinforcing manner, creating conditions under which innovation can flourish. The findings show that the effectiveness of any single resource is contingent upon its combination with other enabling factors, thereby challenging additive assumptions and refining the JD–R framework (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017; Fiss, 2011). Resources do not operate independently; rather, their value emerges through co-presence and interaction within specific configurations.

Furthermore, the absence of a single universally necessary condition across all configurations reinforces Proposition 5 (non-necessity), highlighting that no individual factor is indispensable for innovation. This finding aligns with the broader configurational perspective, which emphasises causal complexity, equifinality and the absence of universal determinants (Misangyi et al., 2017; Woodside, 2014).

Finally, the observed differences between configurations leading to high and low IWB provide clear evidence of causal asymmetry, supporting Proposition 4. The pathways associated with low innovation are not mirror opposites of those leading to high innovation, underscoring that the presence and absence of conditions follow distinct causal logics (Fiss, 2011; Pappas & Woodside, 2021). From a contextual perspective, these findings carry important implications for emerging economies such as Vietnam and South Africa, where resource constraints and institutional challenges are prevalent (Khanna & Palepu, 2010; Urban & Wood, 2017). Rather than relying solely on the development or acquisition of elite talent, organisations can foster innovation by strategically configuring available resources. In particular, the institutional scaffolding pathway offers a practical and scalable approach, demonstrating how structural interventions – such as enhancing job autonomy, increasing skill variety and strengthening organisational support – can democratise innovation and enable broader participation. Overall, this study advances a shift from a focus on resource possession to resource configuration, providing a more nuanced and context-sensitive framework for understanding innovation in complex and resource-constrained environments (Fiss, 2011; Pappas & Woodside, 2021).

Theoretical contributions

This study makes several important contributions to the literature on IWB by advancing a configurational perspective that moves beyond the dominant net-effect paradigm. Firstly, it contributes to the ongoing debate on the drivers of innovation by demonstrating that IWB is not the result of isolated, additive effects of individual or organisational factors but rather emerges from multiple, interdependent configurations of conditions. By providing empirical support for equifinality, the study challenges the prevailing assumption that innovation is primarily driven by the linear accumulation of resources (Anderson et al., 2014; Parker et al., 2017), and instead aligns with complexity theory in emphasising that different combinations of antecedents can produce equivalent outcomes (Fiss, 2011; Misangyi et al., 2017).

Secondly, the study extends the configurational literature by offering a theoretically grounded set of propositions – equifinality, synergistic resource configuration, resource substitution, causal asymmetry and non-necessity – and empirically validating them within the context of digital enterprises. In doing so, it contributes to a more nuanced understanding of how personal and organisational resources interact, rather than operate independently, in shaping innovative behaviour. This addresses recent calls for greater theoretical alignment between configurational methods and the development of configurational hypotheses or propositions (Pappas & Woodside, 2021).

Thirdly, identifying the institutional scaffolding configuration provides a novel theoretical insight by demonstrating a clear mechanism for resource substitution. While prior research has largely focused on high-performing individuals as the primary drivers of innovation, this study shows that organisational resources can compensate for the absence of strong individual capabilities. This finding extends COR theory by illustrating that resource investment can be externally structured and institutionally supported, rather than solely internally accumulated (Hobfoll et al., 2018). In parallel, the evidence of synergistic configurations refines the JD–R framework by showing that the value of resources is contingent upon their co-presence within specific configurations (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017).

Fourthly, by demonstrating the absence of universally necessary conditions and the presence of causal asymmetry, the study reinforces the core tenets of configurational theory. The findings show that the pathways leading to high and low IWB are fundamentally distinct, thereby challenging symmetrical assumptions embedded in conventional variance-based models (Woodside, 2014). This contributes to a growing body of research advocating for asymmetric and complexity-informed approaches to organisational phenomena (Fiss, 2011; Misangyi et al., 2017).

Fifthly, the study contributes to the contextualisation of innovation theory by situating configurational mechanisms within resource-constrained and institutionally complex environments. By incorporating evidence from Vietnam and articulating implications for similar emerging economies such as South Africa, the study responds to calls for more context-sensitive theorising in management research. It demonstrates that configurational approaches are particularly well suited to capturing the realities of environments characterised by resource scarcity, institutional voids and high interdependence, thereby extending the external validity of configurational theory in non-Western and emerging-market contexts (Khanna & Palepu, 2010; Urban & Wood, 2017).

Managerial implications

The shift from a ‘war for talent’ towards an architectural approach to work design represents a fundamental pivot for executives navigating digital transformation in emerging markets. Rather than prioritising the acquisition of scarce ‘superstar’ employees with exceptional psychological resilience and digital readiness, firms should focus on the strategic configuration of organisational systems to enable innovation across the broader workforce. This perspective necessitates a departure from managing through isolated key performance indicators (KPIs) or fragmented HR interventions, which often yield limited impact because they ignore the interdependence of innovation drivers. Instead, managers must adopt a systems-oriented diagnostic lens, recognising that innovation is not a byproduct of any single ‘silver bullet’ factor but emerges from specific, mutually reinforcing ‘causal recipes’ of job autonomy, task variety and organisational support.

Central to this strategic blueprint is the operationalisation of ‘Institutional Scaffolding’ as a viable substitute for individual-level resource deficits. For organisations operating amid persistent talent shortages, the deliberate combination of high job autonomy and skill variety – reinforced by a visible climate of organisational support – creates an external reservoir that compensates for modest PsyCap or digital readiness. By establishing ‘safe-to-fail’ zones and institutionalising support through consistent recognition and managerial backing, firms can lower the perceived psychological cost of experimentation. This approach ensures that the innovation engine remains resilient even when human capital is temporarily depleted, shifting the managerial focus from merely accumulating personal resources to actively providing the structural scaffolds that activate them.

To translate these insights into practice, managers should adopt a contingency-based decision-making logic tailored to their teams’ specific resource profiles. In scenarios where employees already possess high psychological and digital capabilities – the ‘Digital Champions’ – management should prioritise the removal of hierarchical bottlenecks by maximising decision latitude. Conversely, for employees with high motivation but emerging competencies, the ‘Supported Innovator’ pathway suggests that intensifying organisational support can successfully trigger innovative behaviour. In contexts where both individual agency and engagement are constrained, activating the ‘Institutional Scaffolding’ pathway becomes critical, allowing structural job design and paternalistic support to carry the weight of the innovation process.

Finally, these findings provide a transformative blueprint for South African enterprises and public-sector organisations grappling with systemic skill gaps and labour market segmentation. By decentralising decision-making and redesigning roles to encompass diverse problem-solving tasks, South African managers can democratise the innovation process and broaden participation beyond a narrow pool of elite talent. At the policy level, fostering an environment that rewards experimentation and institutionalises support mechanisms can expand the national base of innovative contributors. Such scalable and adaptive interventions offer a sustainable pathway towards inclusive innovation, ensuring that digital transformation efforts are not paralysed by resource constraints but are instead supported by robust organisational architectures.

Conclusion

This study concludes that fostering IWB in digital enterprises within emerging economies requires a fundamental transition from an individual-centric ‘superstar’ model to a systems-oriented architectural approach. By identifying multiple equifinal pathways to innovation – most notably the ‘Institutional Scaffolding’ configuration – this research proves that innovation is not a luxury reserved for resource-rich individuals but a systemic outcome of strategic resource alignment. The validation of a resource-substitution logic underscores that structural job design and organisational support can effectively carry the weight of the innovation process when personal psychological or technical resources are scarce. Ultimately, the study shifts the narrative from what resources employees possess to how organisational environments can be configured to activate and sustain creative contributions across the entire workforce, providing a resilient blueprint for firms operating under the persistent uncertainty of the Global South.

The broader significance of these findings lies in their potential to democratise the innovation process, particularly in contexts such as Vietnam and South Africa, where institutional voids and talent shortages are systemic. By institutionalising support mechanisms and redesigning roles to emphasise autonomy and skill variety, organisations can move beyond the ‘talent war’ to build inclusive innovation ecosystems. This architectural resilience allows firms to maintain their innovation pipeline even during periods of resource depletion or technostress, effectively substituting organisational strength for individual limitation. In an era of rapid digital disruption, the ability to orchestrate these interdependent ‘causal recipes’ provides a sustainable competitive advantage that transcends traditional linear management practices.

However, the findings must be considered in light of certain limitations, notably the reliance on cross-sectional, self-reported data within a single national context, which may affect the assessment of causal ordering and generalisability. Future research should address these constraints by employing longitudinal designs or multi-source assessments – such as supervisor-rated innovation metrics – to rigorously validate the temporal stability of these configurational pathways. Additionally, comparative studies across diverse emerging markets, including direct cross-national analyses between Asian and African technology sectors, would further refine the boundary conditions of the ‘Institutional Scaffolding’ model. Exploring how these resource configurations evolve across different stages of digital maturity will continue to enhance our understanding of how resilient innovation is sustained in complex global environments.

Acknowledgements

The author declares that no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced the writing of this article.

Nuong T. Le: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Supervision, Validation, Visualisation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. The author confirms that this work is entirely their own, has reviewed the article, approved the final version for submission and publication and takes full responsibility for the integrity of its findings.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Ethics Committee of the Department of Science, Technology, and International Cooperation, Hong Duc University.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Nuong T. Le upon reasonable request.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher.

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