Original Research

The adaptation and evolution of expatriate roles in multinational corporations

Lena Klein, John Luiz

Received: 08 Dec. 2025; Accepted: 08 June 2026; Published: 10 Aug. 2026

Copyright: © 2026. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Purpose: This paper examines how the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, combined with evolving work practices, has reshaped expatriate roles in multinational corporations. It explores how the shift to hybrid and remote work has disrupted traditional expatriation, transformed the symbolic and functional roles of expatriates, and given rise to new approaches to adjustment, boundary spanning and career development.

Design/methodology/approach: Using a qualitative exploratory approach, the study draws on semi-structured interviews with expatriates and human resource (HR) professionals across multiple industries.

Findings/results: The findings reveal both challenges and opportunities: expatriates faced loss of symbolic authority, operational disruptions and social isolation, but also gained flexibility and productivity. New management styles emerged, digital tools were integrated and tasks were differentiated between those requiring physical presence and those suited to remote execution. Hybrid models created career opportunities while posing visibility and networking challenges, especially for early-career assignees.

Practical implications: The findings offer implications for expatriates, multinational corporations and human resources managers, which are unpacked in the article.

Originality/value: Expatriate roles are evolving into a portfolio of assignment types that balance digital coordination with physical presence. The study contributes to international human resource management theory by extending expatriate adjustment to multi-modal adaptation, reconceptualising expatriates as dual boundary spanners across physical and digital domains, and highlighting paradoxes of visibility, mobility and control in hybrid contexts. It advances understanding of global mobility as a dynamic, tension-laden process shaped by digitalisation.

Keywords: expatriates; hybrid work; remote work; global mobility; COVID-19; human resource management; qualitative research; multinational corporations.

Introduction

Globalisation has been associated with the international integration of commodity, capital and labour markets and the internationalisation of business enterprises. This expansion has fuelled the demand for a workforce capable of navigating international dynamics. To meet these demands, multinational corporations (MNCs) have developed global mobility programmes that increasingly function as strategic tools (Deloitte, 2022). Expatriates, professionals who live and work outside their home countries, have thus been central actors in the functioning and coordination of MNCs (McNulty & Brewster, 2017)

However, the outbreak of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic in late 2019 disrupted this trajectory and triggered a significant ‘reset’ for global mobility (Mello & Tomei, 2021; Semi, 2021). Expatriate assignments were drastically reduced, with many delayed, cancelled or cut short, and around 53% of expatriates were forced to return to their home countries (Lazarova et al., 2023). The pandemic also coincided with and accelerated broader organisational shifts already underway, particularly the digitisation of work and the redesign of business models, thereby transforming how global employees, including expatriates, conducted their daily interactions. As a result, MNCs were compelled to reassess the assumptions underpinning traditional face-to-face expatriation.

Today, MNCs continue to grapple with the balance between remote and in-person work, particularly for expatriates whose effectiveness has historically depended on co-presence, informal interaction and hands-on engagement (Lauring et al., 2024). Whereas 54% of MNCs have implemented or plan to implement permanent remote work options, there remains considerable uncertainty about when and for whom; physical presence remains indispensable (Martins, 2022). The question, therefore, is not simply whether expatriates are still needed, but how their roles are being reconfigured considering technological change, organisational priorities and employee expectations.

The motivation for this study lies in the increasing need to understand how expatriate roles are evolving as hybrid and remote work models become more firmly embedded in global business operations. The COVID-19 pandemic acted less as a rupture than as an accelerator, expediting the adoption of digital technologies and prompting reflection on the value expatriates provide (Koveshnikov et al., 2022; Végh et al., 2023). This moment of reflection sharpened the distinction between tasks that can be performed remotely and those that still require in-person presence. It also raised questions about the skills expatriates require, the career implications of working at a distance and the ways in which hybrid work will shape global mobility strategies in the long-term. Given that expatriate assignments can cost between $300 000 and $1 million annually, and that one-quarter of expatriates leave their organisations within a year of repatriation (Deloitte, 2022), these questions are both theoretically and practically significant.

This research therefore asks: How has the shift to hybrid and remote work, accelerated by the COVID-19 pandemic, influenced the adaptation and evolution of expatriate roles within MNCs? To address this question, we examine how expatriates were affected during the immediate disruptions of the pandemic, how they have since adapted their daily tasks and responsibilities, which aspects of their work can be digitalised, and which remain tied to physical presence, and how these shifts influence professional development, career advancement and future skill requirements. In line with the exploratory nature of these questions, we adopt a qualitative research design, drawing on semi-structured interviews with expatriates, human resource (HR) managers and global mobility consultants.

Theoretically, this study advances expatriation research by developing the notion of hybrid expatriation. Rather than treating traditional and virtual assignments as opposites, the findings show an emerging model in which expatriates purposefully manage both digital and physical presence. This reframing extends key theoretical streams. Expatriate adjustment must now include navigating multi-modal work (Haq et al., 2023). Boundary spanning involves coordinating relationships between virtual and in-person settings. Global talent management must rethink how career capital and visibility develop when immersion is intermittent, and MNC control and coordination require balancing digital monitoring with the trust built through face-to-face interaction (Canhilal et al., 2020; Lauring et al., 2024; Sahakiants & Dorner, 2021). In general, expatriation is not being replaced but is being reshaped, providing a basis for rethinking global mobility in a changing international business environment (Lazarova et al., 2023).

The paper is structured as follows. ‘Literature review’ section presents the review of the literature discussing the roles of expatriates, the disruption to that model caused by the COVID-19 pandemic and how the future of work impacts the role of expatriates within MNCs. ‘Methodology’ section provides our methodology, and this is followed by our findings. ‘Discussion’ section concludes with our discussion, theoretical contributions, implications, limitations and areas for future research.

Literature review

Expatriates are individuals living outside their native country for professional reasons (McNulty & Brewster, 2017). They can be broadly divided into assigned expatriates, deployed abroad by their parent companies, and self-initiated expatriates, who independently choose to work overseas (Lauring & Selmer, 2018). This study focuses on high-status expatriates, typically occupying managerial or leadership roles in subsidiaries and receiving substantial support packages. Such expatriates are central to MNCs, performing critical functions of strategy implementation, oversight and integration.

Traditional expatriate roles and responsibilities

Before the COVID-19 pandemic, expatriates played pivotal roles in global operations, particularly in subsidiary management and headquarters (HQ)–subsidiary coordination. McNulty and Brewster (2017) emphasise their responsibilities in managerial control, knowledge transfer, cultural dissemination and leadership development. Harzing’s (2001) metaphors of expatriates as bears (control), bumblebees (socialisation) and spiders (informal network creation) capture their multiple functions.

Peng and Meyer (2023) summarise expatriate roles as strategists, monitors, ambassadors, daily managers and trainers. These illustrate their contribution to both operational and developmental objectives. Haq et al. (2023) further distinguish demand-driven expatriation (control, knowledge transfer, problem-solving) from learning-driven expatriation (career development, capability building). While demand-driven roles have historically dominated, learning-driven assignments are increasingly valued in global leadership pipelines.

Despite the rise of localisation strategies, motivated by the high costs of expatriation and the desire to promote host-country nationals (Jawad, 2020), expatriates remain vital in contexts where local talent lacks specialised expertise (Haq et al., 2023). In emerging markets and countries with weak institutional frameworks, expatriates are often indispensable for transmitting corporate culture, ensuring compliance and leading strategic initiatives (Martins, 2022).

In international business research, this multifunctional contribution is frequently conceptualised through the lens of boundary spanning. Boundary spanning refers to activities that connect otherwise separated groups, units or contexts. Expatriates have long been recognised as boundary spanners, mediating between headquarters and subsidiaries, home and host cultures, and global and local practices (Harzing et al., 2016; McNulty & Brewster, 2017). In this sense, expatriates act as translators and brokers, ensuring knowledge transfer and organisational integration. This boundary spanning function has historically relied heavily on physical relocation and cultural immersion, a reliance that has been profoundly challenged by recent shifts in global work practices.

The disruption of work models and expatriation

The COVID-19 pandemic created a profound shock to global mobility. Many expatriate assignments were postponed or cancelled, and more than half of expatriates returned home (Lazarova et al., 2023). Organisations shifted rapidly to remote work, with 88% mandating home working (Mello & Tomei, 2021). Border closures, travel restrictions and local employment pressures intensified insecurity and isolation among expatriates (Koveshnikov et al., 2022; Végh et al., 2023).

This abrupt shift accelerated trends already underway. Remote and hybrid work, previously peripheral, became central to organisational practice (Arslan et al., 2020). Hybrid models that combine remote and in-office work are now used domestically and internationally (Deloitte, 2022). Although remote work had been associated with talent attraction and work–life balance (Leonardi et al., 2024), the pandemic forced its adoption at scale, frequently without preparation (Semi, 2021).

For expatriates, these changes were mixed. Digital platforms ensured continuity, yet they also intensified technostress (Shirmohammadi et al., 2022), blurred work–home boundaries (Semi, 2021) and reduced opportunities for cultural immersion (Sahakiants & Dorner, 2021). At the same time, hybrid arrangements lowered the personal costs of relocation and supported family and dual-career considerations (Lauring et al., 2024; Martins, 2022). The crisis therefore prompted organisations and expatriates to reassess the purpose and value of traditional assignments.

The COVID-19 pandemic also accelerated the hybridisation of expatriate roles. Martins (2022) identifies three forms now in practice: full on-site, hybrid and fully remote. Hybrid expatriation involves distributing presence across digital and physical modalities, with digital tools supporting tasks such as reporting and planning, while in-person presence is retained for relationship building, mentoring and cultural brokerage. It represents a middle ground between traditional relocation and virtual expatriation.

The literature underscores both the continued importance of expatriates as control agents, knowledge brokers and cultural carriers and the scale of disruption created by COVID-19. Given that 30% – 50% of expatriates are ineffective or only marginally effective, with failure costs reaching $150 000 (Martins, 2022), improving selection and preparation remains essential. What remains insufficiently understood is how adjustment, boundary spanning, global talent management and coordination must evolve when international work unfolds across both digital and physical domains. This study addresses this gap by examining how expatriate roles are being reconfigured as hybrid portfolios of digital and embodied presence.

Methodology

Research design and data collection

This study adopts an interpretivist philosophy, recognising expatriate roles and hybrid work experiences as socially constructed and subjectively interpreted. Ontologically, it assumes multiple realities across expatriates, HR managers and consultants. Epistemologically, knowledge is co-created through semi-structured interviews that explore participants’ sensemaking rather than test hypotheses. Axiologically, the study acknowledges researcher reflexivity in interpreting the data (Creswell & Poth, 2018). This positioning aligns with the exploratory qualitative design and the aim of understanding the evolving roles of expatriates in hybrid contexts.

Exploratory designs are well suited to fast-changing contexts and help uncover emerging patterns and theoretical insights (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Interviews were chosen because expatriation involves organisational processes and personal experiences of adjustment, boundary spanning and career development. Semi-structured interviews allowed consistency across key topics while giving participants freedom to describe how they interpreted changing work practices.

A purposive sample (Creswell & Poth, 2018) of 16 participants was recruited: six expatriates, six HR managers in MNCs and four consultants specialising in global mobility (Table 1a & Table 1b). Saturation was reached after 16 interviews, as no new themes appeared in the final transcripts. Participants were selected for their direct involvement in expatriate assignments during the pandemic, with attention to diversity in roles, industries and countries. Expatriates came from functions such as engineering, marketing, quality management, project management and factory planning; HR managers and consultants provided organisational and strategic viewpoints. The sectors represented included automotive, chemistry, automation, oil and gas, and consulting. The geographical spread covered host countries such as the United States, Singapore, China, South Africa and Argentina, providing insight into how hybrid models unfold in different institutional settings.

The participants had between 5 years and 18 years of experience, offering a mix of early-career and senior perspectives. The recruitment was carried out through LinkedIn and email, using publicly available contact details. All participants received an information sheet and gave their informed consent. The interviews were conducted online through video conferencing.

Data analysis

The interview data were analysed using thematic coding (Braun & Clarke, 2021), which supports the systematic identification of patterns while remaining sensitive to participants’ lived experiences. NVivo version 14 (Lumivero, Denver, CO, US) was used to organise codes.

Analysis proceeded in three stages. Firstly, initial coding generated descriptive codes that reflected participants’ own phrasing and experiences (e.g. ‘loss of visibility’, ‘digital efficiency’, ‘reduced immersion’). Secondly, codes were grouped into broader themes through constant comparison within and across interviews. Thirdly, these themes were refined in light of existing work on expatriate adjustment, boundary spanning, global talent management, and control and coordination in MNCs.

This process produced four overarching themes used in the findings: (1) the immediate and subsequent effects of COVID-19 on expatriate roles, (2) the adaptation of expatriate tasks and the distinction between work requiring in-person presence and tasks executable remotely, (3) the impact of hybrid and remote models on professional development and skill requirements, and (4) the evolution of expatriate roles in the post-pandemic environment. Together, these themes offer an empirically grounded and theoretically informed account of how expatriation is being reshaped.

Research trustworthiness

Trustworthiness was ensured by adhering to established criteria for credibility, transferability, dependability and confirmability (Creswell & Poth, 2018). Credibility was strengthened through triangulation among expatriates, HR managers and consultants, as well as through reflexive awareness of the researcher’s assumptions. Selected participants were invited to comment on emerging interpretations, helping verify the accuracy of themes.

Transferability was supported by providing detailed descriptions of participants’ roles, industries and host-country contexts, enabling readers to assess the relevance of findings to other settings. Dependability was ensured through systematic documentation of data collection and analysis procedures, including coding decisions and iterative theme development. Confirmability was enhanced through peer debriefing and independent checks of coding structures, reducing the influence of individual bias.

Ethical considerations

The University of Cape Town Faculty of Commerce Research Ethics Committee granted ethical approval, and all participants received information about the study and provided informed consent.

Results

The findings are organised around four key themes: the immediate and subsequent effects of COVID-19 on expatriate assignments, the adaptation of expatriate tasks, a focus on tasks requiring in-person presence versus those executable remotely, the impact of hybrid and remote work models on expatriate professional development and skill requirements, and the evolution of expatriate roles within the post-pandemic business environment.

Immediate impact on expatriates

The immediate effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on expatriates were profound, disruptive and multifaceted. They affected expatriates’ sense of role identity and purpose, their ability to manage operational and logistical demands, and their emotional and social well-being. At the same time, some participants highlighted unanticipated benefits, particularly in terms of flexibility, productivity and work–life balance. This section examines these challenges and advantages in detail, showing how expatriates experienced both a crisis of purpose and an opportunity for renewal.

Main challenges

Loss of role identity and purpose: Expatriates have historically occupied highly visible and symbolic positions within MNCs. They serve as conduits of control, transmitters of corporate culture, and coordinators of knowledge and networks (Harzing et al., 2016; McNulty & Brewster, 2017). These roles are deeply anchored in physical presence, as the embodied presence of the expatriate in the host office often conveys authority, builds legitimacy and enables them to represent the strategic direction of headquarters (Haq et al., 2023; Martins, 2022). The abrupt shift to remote work during the pandemic disrupted this embodied symbolism. For many expatriates, the lack of physical presence diminished their perceived authority and eroded their sense of distinctiveness:

‘COVID-19 made it extremely difficult to work as an expat. They arrived and had to work from home, which basically made them just like any regular associate or team member working from a different place.’ (H3)

E6 echoed this frustration, emphasising that ‘the lack of face-to-face interaction with my team made everything more challenging’.

These reflections illustrate a weakening of what Harzing (2001) metaphorically described as the expatriate’s role as ‘bear’ (control), ‘bumble-bee’ (socialisation) and ‘spider’ (network building). Without in-person presence, expatriates were stripped of these symbolic functions, reducing them to disembodied voices in virtual meetings. The loss of role identity highlights a deeper theoretical issue: expatriate adjustment during the pandemic involved not only adapting to host cultures but also recalibrating to a new mode of working in a hybrid, often virtual environment. Adjustment theory (Mendenhall & Reiche, 2024) has traditionally focused on cultural and contextual adaptation, but these findings suggest the need to expand it to include ‘multi-modal adjustment’ between physical and digital domains.

Operational and logistical disruptions: The immediate impact of COVID-19 also included acute operational disruptions. Expatriates depend on international mobility, frequent travel and on-the-ground management; all of which were severely curtailed by border closures, quarantine requirements and travel bans:

‘We were quite busy with bringing our expats back to Germany. We struggled to maintain daily operations across borders, given the various travel restrictions.’ (H2)

While organisations quickly adopted digital tools such as video conferencing, these were insufficient substitz hands-on management. The limits of remote substitution became especially evident in complex or rapidly changing situations, where embodied oversight and physical engagement remained indispensable. Research confirms this point: while 88% of organisations transitioned to remote work during the pandemic, expatriates in hands-on operational contexts found their roles undermined (Mello & Tomei, 2021).

This illustrates the paradox of digital boundary spanning: while expatriates leveraged digital platforms to maintain cross-border connections, they simultaneously encountered new barriers to spanning local organisational and institutional boundaries. This suggests that expatriates now face a dual burden, spanning both physical and virtual divides, requiring more sophisticated coordination strategies.

Emotional isolation and social disconnection: The third major challenge concerned expatriates’ social and emotional well-being. Expatriation has always been a socially intense process, involving both professional integration into host organisations and personal adaptation to local communities (Shaffer et al., 2012). The pandemic’s restrictions stripped away many of these opportunities, leaving expatriates vulnerable to isolation:

‘We had one expat who lived alone, and for him, I think it was tough … he would come to the office because he didn’t have anything else to do.’ (H6)

‘Some expats found themselves in empty offices because everyone else was working from home … they didn’t get the experience they had hoped for.’ (C2)

These experiences resonate with existing studies (Shirmohammadi et al., 2022; Végh et al., 2023) showing that the absence of informal, everyday interactions exacerbated expatriates’ sense of disconnection. This was particularly difficult for newcomers, who were deprived of the spontaneous encounters that often underpin a successful adjustment.

This points to a reconfiguration of expatriate boundary spanning. Traditionally, expatriates build informal bridges through daily proximity and interaction. In virtual contexts, however, their ability to span cultural and organisational divides is curtailed, with trust and belonging harder to cultivate digitally. This reveals a key tension: while digital tools enable functional communication, they undermine the relational depth central to expatriate adjustment.

Main advantages

While the pandemic produced severe challenges, participants also identified several unexpected advantages that came with the shift to hybrid and remote work. These included increased flexibility and work-life balance, as well as increased productivity and efficiency.

Increased flexibility and work–life balance: For some expatriates, remote and hybrid work opened possibilities for balancing professional and personal life in ways previously unimaginable:

‘Before, I needed to be in the office all the time, but now, even as an expat, I can work 3 days a week in the office and the other 2 days from home.’ (E4)

These findings align with studies highlighting how hybrid work models improve work–life balance, particularly for dual-career couples or families with children (Lauring et al., 2024). At the same time, some research (Semi, 2021) warns that flexibility without boundaries risks blurring the line between work and home life, leading to burnout. This suggests that the new expatriate role involves a recalibration. While hybrid arrangements reduce relocation pressures and improve family compatibility, they also require careful structuring to preserve boundaries.

Enhanced productivity and efficiency: Another advantage highlighted was increased productivity in remote contexts. For some expatriates, digital tools streamlined communication and allowed multitasking:

‘Our productivity was not affected by virtual working; in fact, we enhanced it.’ (E5)

These reflections highlight how, under certain conditions, digital platforms facilitated faster coordination and more efficient task completion. Literature notes that while expatriates in relationally intensive roles struggled, those in structured or knowledge-intensive roles often thrived in virtual settings (Martins, 2022; Mello & Tomei, 2021). This points to an evolution in control and coordination mechanisms within MNCs. Where once expatriates’ authority derived from in-person presence, their effectiveness may now depend on their capacity to coordinate digitally, leveraging platforms to maintain visibility and manage multiple relationships simultaneously.

Subsequent impact on expatriates

The initial disruptions of the pandemic were followed by a second phase, in which expatriates and their organisations had to adapt to new realities of working life. While the first months were characterised by crisis management and uncertainty, the subsequent impact revealed deeper shifts in how expatriates led, used digital tools, and sought to build trust at a distance. These changes not only reflected short-term adaptations but also offered insights into the longer-term reconfiguration of expatriate roles.

Shifting leadership styles

One of the clearest impacts of the pandemic was the adjustment of leadership styles. Expatriate leaders could no longer rely on presence, proximity and embodied authority to guide their teams. Instead, they had to experiment with new approaches that balanced control, trust and autonomy. For some, this meant sharpening the managerial focus. E1 described how they had to ‘adjust … prioritisation and delegation were key’, suggesting that remote work required clearer structures and sharper task allocation. E2 reinforced this point, noting that leadership in crisis demanded innovation:

‘We had to completely reinvent, not my role, but … my approach to solving problems.’ (E2)

However, the absence of in-person oversight also tempted some managers to intensify control mechanisms. E1 recalled:

‘My boss … set up more meetings and results reviews.’ (E1)

Similarly, E2 reflected:

‘He micromanaged us to a certain extent … that created more stress and pressure.’ (E2)

These accounts highlight the limitations of traditional supervisory practices when transposed into remote settings, where micromanagement can heighten stress rather than enhance performance.

In contrast, other leaders adopted a trust-based approach. As C1 explained:

‘Leaders had to adapt to less control and trust more in results than in the process of how work gets done.’ (C1)

This illustrates a shift towards outcome-focused leadership, in which trust and autonomy became the foundations of effective team management.

These divergent approaches echo Martin’s (2022) argument that trust, flexibility and adaptability are indispensable for leadership in hybrid expatriate contexts. Expatriates’ experiences suggest that leadership adjustment is no longer only about cultural adaptation (Mendenhall & Reiche, 2024) but about navigating the tension between digital oversight and trust-based delegation, a new dimension of expatriate adjustment.

Integration of digital tools

The pandemic also accelerated the integration of digital tools into the daily work of expatriates. Virtual platforms such as Teams, email and the phone became indispensable for maintaining continuity:

‘We used Teams, phone, and email to communicate. It made communication harder, but it was still possible.’ (E1)

Yet participants also underscored the limits of such tools. E2 explained:

‘The most severe effect was the inability to personally connect with team members.’ (E2)

This points to a critical distinction: while digital technologies enabled functional communication, they fell short of sustaining relational depth, particularly in roles that depend on interpersonal trust and informal exchange.

This aligns with Canhilal et al. (2020) and Lauring et al. (2024), who note that digital tools support task coordination but cannot reproduce the social and cultural nuances of in-person interaction. For expatriates, this gap is significant because their role includes embodying and transmitting corporate culture across borders. The findings suggest that digital communication must be supplemented with intentional practices such as virtual team-building, mentoring and periodic in-person visits. In conceptual terms, expatriates now span boundaries across both digital and physical domains, requiring more deliberate management of social ties (Bartlett et al., 2024).

Challenges in building trust remotely

Perhaps the most persistent challenge was building and sustaining trust at a distance. Expatriates emphasised that trust often arises from informal interactions, body language and everyday proximity, all of which were curtailed during the pandemic:

‘As someone in a leadership position, you rely heavily on personal, in-the-room communication … trust-building was challenging without being able to read body language.’ (E6)

These accounts highlight the fragility of trust in virtual contexts. Sahakiants and Dorner (2021) similarly note that the erosion of informal contact undermines the capacity of expatriates to act as cultural and organisational bridges. The loss of embodied interaction not only affects immediate team dynamics but also weakens the symbolic function of expatriates as credible representatives of headquarters abroad. While digital tools provide formal oversight and reporting, the cultivation of trust, long considered a cornerstone of expatriate effectiveness (Harzing et al., 2016), remains tied to physical presence. Hybrid expatriation therefore requires new mechanisms to combine digital efficiency with embodied trust-building, pointing to a ‘dual legitimacy’ challenge in which expatriates must be credible in both virtual and face-to-face arenas.

Adaptation of expatriate tasks: In-person versus remote execution

As expatriates adjusted to hybrid and remote environments, a critical question was about the adaptability of their tasks. Some activities proved possible (even efficient) in virtual form, while others remained inherently dependent on physical presence.

Expatriate tasks requiring in-person presence

Despite the expansion of digital collaboration, certain tasks still require strong face-to-face engagement.

Negotiations, trust-building and relationship management: Participants consistently stressed that trust and rapport cannot be fully developed through screens:

‘Some tasks will always require in-person presence, especially negotiations. Without being face-to-face, trust-building is difficult.’ (E5)

E2 went further, stressing that entire assignments, particularly those involving new ventures, are contingent on physical presence:

‘Any expat assignment that involves creating a new team, business, department, legal entity, or greenfield operation will likely remain highly dependent on face-to-face presence.’ (E2)

These reflections show that expatriates’ relational effectiveness is grounded in non-verbal cues and informal interaction. Virtual tools can sustain communication, but they cannot fully substitute for embodied trust-building, particularly in contexts of high uncertainty or new team formation.

Leadership, training and integration tasks: Leadership and mentoring also emerged as diminished virtual tasks. E4 emphasised the need for physical presence in developmental roles:

‘For hands-on mentoring and guiding junior staff, I needed to be on-site.’ (E4)

E6 similarly highlighted the importance of embodied presence in career conversations:

‘Career development conversations or retrospectives are best done in-person. There’s a level of connection and trust that’s harder to establish or maintain purely through a screen.’ (E6)

Studies stress that expatriate mentorship roles depend on subtle observation, spontaneous feedback and informal coaching (Canhilal et al., 2020; Lauring et al., 2024). Digital tools are effective for transactional communication but may be insufficient for relational development.

Hands-on tasks: In technical fields, expatriates insisted that physical oversight remained indispensable:

‘If there’s a physical component, it’s always useful to be on-site to see it in-person and be hands-on at the shop floor.’ (E3)

C4 reinforced this with reference to complex assignments:

‘If you are managing a subsidiary’s turnaround or restructuring, it’s impossible to get the job done properly without being on-the-ground.’ (C4)

These findings echo those of Martins (2022), who notes that the viability of hybrid expatriation is highly dependent on industry. In sectors like manufacturing and construction, where quality and safety are tied to physical inspection, remote models cannot substitute for embodied presence.

Cultural exchange and enrichment: Finally, expatriates’ role as cultural bridges was seen as irreducibly physical:

‘The cultural exchange and enrichment on both sides was not possible remotely.’ (H3)

This reflects classic perspectives on expatriates as ‘cultural carriers’ (Harzing, 2001; McNulty & Brewster, 2017). Martins (2022) also stresses that the effectiveness of expatriates depends on immersion in the host environment, which cannot be replicated by digital interaction alone. Together, these insights suggest that tasks related to trust, embodied mentorship, operational oversight and cultural exchange remain inseparable from physical presence.

Expatriate tasks that can be performed remotely

While some tasks demanded in-person engagement, others adapted well to remote execution, often delivering efficiencies in time and cost.

Audits and routine tasks: Participants described how structured, repetitive tasks could be performed effectively through digital platforms:

‘Remotely you can do almost everything. For example, we even conducted supplier audits remotely. We told suppliers, “Use the programme or other devices,” and they would guide us through different stations and explain the processes.’ (E1)

This illustrates Martin’s (2022) point that tasks with clearly defined procedures, such as audits, IT work or consulting, are particularly suited to hybrid or virtual expatriation.

Communication in established teams: Remote tools also supported communication in teams with pre-existing trust and cohesion. As E2 explained:

‘When there’s an established ecosystem, team, or business unit, and the assignment is simply a geographical change, technology can handle most communication needs, making the physical presence of an expat somewhat optional.’ (E2)

While remote collaboration functions well in established teams, it struggles to generate trust in newly formed groups (Lauring et al., 2024; Sahakiants & Dorner, 2021).

Initial meetings, project planning and strategy development: Some participants found that the early stages of projects, including initial contacts and planning, could be effectively managed online. E3 noted:

‘In the planning phase, it was very possible to work remotely … I used the opportunity to work remotely to better coordinate with different time zones for project planning.’ (E3)

This underscores the utility of digital platforms in connecting dispersed stakeholders and coordinating strategy. However, most participants stressed that later phases, such as negotiation or implementation, still required in-person presence.

These findings point to a clear duality in expatriate work. Tasks related to trust-building, mentoring, operational oversight and cultural immersion still require physical presence, while structured, routine or early-stage tasks can be handled remotely. Expatriates, therefore, shift from being generalists to strategically allocating their presence, investing in in-person time where embodiment matters most and using digital tools for the rest. Adjustment now involves task-based hybridity, balancing physical and digital engagement across different elements of the role.

Professional development, career progression and skill requirements

Hybrid and remote work reshaped the professional development of expatriates in two intertwined ways. Firstly, it created new opportunity structures: greater access to international roles, stronger HQ connectivity and time and space to build qualifications. Secondly, it introduced developmental frictions: reduced visibility, thinner networks and fewer chances to signal potential. Read together, the findings suggest that expatriates now build and deploy career capital (human, social and reputational) across dual contexts (physical and digital), requiring by our data’s implication, a hybrid skill stack that blends classic expatriate competencies with digital fluency and virtual leadership (Lauring et al., 2024).

Professional development opportunities in hybrid and remote expatriate roles

The first positive identified was related to the expansion of the candidate pool. Participants described an opening of international opportunities driven by remote collaboration. As H5 put it:

‘The shift towards more remote collaboration has opened the door to broader international cooperation. We can now bring in team members from across the globe.’ (E5)

Companies retained key contributors as ‘virtual expats’, even when life circumstances pulled them home:

‘We’ve had an increase in virtual expats because some of our key talents wanted to return to their home countries …, but we were able to keep them.’ (H4)

They also recalibrate the attraction of assignments for younger cohorts:

‘Interestingly, younger employees are less interested in taking on expat roles. However, with the rise of virtual and hybrid assignments, it’s now possible to offer flexible options for these less desirable locations.’ (C1)

Conceptually, this is consistent with boundaryless/protean career logics: international exposure is no longer contingent on full physical relocation; it can be composed modularly through hybrid or virtual stints that still accrue cross-border experience and learning.

The second positive was related to maintaining connections with the home country and company. One underappreciated developmental upside of remote/hybrid formats is sustained embeddedness in HQ networks. C2 explained:

‘While on-site roles offer career growth that remote work can’t fully replace, remote assignments help expats stay connected with their home country and company.’ (C2)

This echoes findings that hybrid and virtual assignees can feel less isolated from headquarters (Lauring et al., 2024) and can buffer the risk of ‘out of sight, out of mind’ when they remain regularly visible to HQ decision-makers (Haq et al., 2023).

As regards the third positive, there were opportunities for certification and skill development. Participants also leveraged remote phases to deepen human capital. E4 noted:

‘There was an opportunity to use the remote working phase to get certified in areas that will boost my career.’ (E4)

This resonates with the shift towards self-directed upskilling and dynamic capabilities in hybrid contexts (Liu et al., 2023). The structure and temporal flexibility of remote work made it easier to schedule formal learning while continuing to deliver on assignment goals. Strategically, this turns ‘downtime’ from travel or office routines into investment time, strengthening both technical credentials and cross-cultural soft skills that remain central to expatriate effectiveness.

Finally, it appeared to be a particularly positive experience for senior professionals, as developmental benefits were not evenly distributed. Senior expatriates appeared to leverage hybrid or remote conditions to their advantage, partly because they already possess strong social capital and reputation. As E3 reflected:

‘For me, it’s only been positive. I think this is generally true for people who are more senior.’ (E3)

This finding fits the idea that seasoned managers can draw down accumulated career capital (relationships, credibility, know-how) to remain influential and visible in virtual settings, whereas less experienced expatriates still need face-to-face exposure to build those assets from scratch (Haq et al., 2023).

Professional development challenges in hybrid and remote expatriate roles

Various more negative issues related to hybrid and remote expatriate work were identified. Firstly, were challenges linked to challenges with career visibility: Despite the upsides, the data consistently spotlight visibility as a developmental bottleneck:

‘Without being physically present, it’s harder to demonstrate your full potential, which affects career advancement.’ (E5)

‘If you’re “out of sight,” you might not be considered for new roles or projects.’ (C1)

Remote heavy work reduces signal density with fewer casual showcases of competence, fewer spontaneous endorsements and less serendipitous sponsor contact. For expatriates, whose value often rests on relational influence and on-the-ground judgement, a virtual-only presence can depress the informal cues on which advancement decisions often rely on.

Secondly, there were networking challenges as participants highlighted fewer opportunities to grow host-country ties and sponsorships:

‘Without in-person contact with senior leaders, building the trust needed for career advancement became more challenging. Remote settings limit the informal conversations where trust is built.’ (E2)

This maps directly onto social capital formation arguments: weak ties and informal encounters are crucial for trust and the discovery of opportunities (Canhilal et al., 2020; Lauring et al., 2024; Sahakiants & Dorner, 2021). Hybrid and remote work sustain functional coordination but suppress the micro-interactions that build sponsorship, especially in new contexts.

Lastly, there were difficulties in showcasing one’s full potential, as several participants described a broader struggle to signal stretch and readiness for leadership. From a developmental lens, this is the performance–potential gap under virtual conditions: formal outputs can be visible online, but subtle indicators of leadership are harder to display remotely.

Shifting skills and expectations for expatriates

The shift to hybrid and remote work models not only changed how expatriates perform their roles but also reshaped the skill sets required for success. What emerges is a new hybrid skill profile that combines established capabilities with digital fluency and virtual leadership. Firstly, digital competence has become foundational. Across roles, expatriates stressed that digital fluency is now a baseline requirement, less a differentiator than a licence to operate. H1 specified the new baseline:

‘Expats need proficiency in tools like Teams, Zoom, and Slack, as well as skills in digital communication, data security, and virtual teamwork to maintain team cohesion.’ (H1)

Mastery here goes beyond technical knowledge. It includes cadence setting, managing asynchronous coordination and designing communication to restore some of the nuance that is lost without co-presence.

Secondly, expatriates must now cultivate a broader skill portfolio that blends adaptability, cultural awareness and electronic leadership. As E1 described:

‘I had to become more flexible, prioritising tasks and delegating more while staying reachable through tools like instant messaging and video calls.’ (E1)

E2 summarised the hybrid stack:

‘Expats still need core skills like adaptability, cultural awareness, and communication, but now they also have to lead virtual teams and navigate digital work environments.’ (E2)

H4 was explicit about expectations:

‘Virtual leadership is crucial for expats.’ (H4)

These accounts point to the need for ambidexterity, switching fluidly between face-to-face and virtual modes, between relationship building and task orchestration, and between local immersion and global coordination (Liu et al., 2023).

Overall, hybrid and remote models are reconfiguring the pathways through which expatriates accumulate and deploy career capital. Opportunities have widened, with global access and stronger headquarters connectivity, but developmentally critical ingredients are harder to achieve without intentional design. The skill profile that now underpins success is best understood as a hybrid stack: classic expatriate capabilities such as adaptability, cultural fluency and leadership augmented by digital competence and virtual team stewardship.

Evolution of expatriate roles in the post-pandemic business environment

The pandemic did not eliminate expatriation but reconfigured its purpose, scope and modalities. The reflections of the participants show a dual trajectory path: on the one hand, the continuation of traditional expatriate assignments remains essential in certain contexts; on the other hand, short-term, virtual and hybrid solutions have gained ground as legitimate alternatives. Together, these trends point to the evolution of expatriation into a portfolio of assignment types that balance flexibility and cost-efficiency with the enduring need for physical presence, cultural immersion and regulatory compliance.

Continuation of traditional expatriate assignments

Despite expectations that the pandemic would permanently shift work towards virtual formats, many participants emphasised the ongoing importance of traditional, on-site expatriation. These roles remain particularly vital where deep cultural immersion, face-to-face relationship-building and local operational oversight are required.

The data show that certain functions required on-site expertise and face-to-face interactions. Several participants underlined the irreplaceability of physical presence in contexts where expatriates serve as cultural agents and knowledge brokers. E4 reflected:

‘We still meet in-person every now and then, and nothing can fully replace that … It’s not the same for them.’ (E4)

Similarly, H1 stressed the enduring value of expatriates as repositories of scarce expertise: ‘You will still need expats because there may be a lack of proper expertise at some locations’.

While hybrid models can maintain functional communication, they cannot reproduce the 360-degree immersion that arises from living and working in host contexts (Martins, 2022). Although expatriates can connect virtually across geographies, certain types of relational depth, tacit knowledge transfer and institutional navigation still demand physical presence.

It was clear that, once the restrictions were lifted, there was a return to pre-pandemic expatriate models and a re-embracing of traditional long-term assignments, in some organisations. As H2 observed:

‘After the pandemic, we reverted to our traditional setup for expat assignments.’ (H2)

H3 quantified this return:

‘80% returned to traditional assignments, while the remaining 20% now have more flexible working models.’ (H3)

This finding nuance claims of a wholesale pivot to hybrid and virtual formats. For example, Martins (2022) reported that more than half of leaders intended to maintain remote work options, suggesting a broader structural shift. However, participants’ accounts demonstrate a strong gravitational pull back to traditional models, particularly in sectors or geographies where on-site presence is considered indispensable. What emerges is not a simple reversion but a selective recalibration as companies continue to use traditional expatriates where depth of presence is required, while experimenting with flexibility in less critical or more routinised roles.

A further driver of continuity in traditional assignments is regulatory frameworks governing taxation and legal constraints. Many jurisdictions impose rigid tax and labour requirements that complicate remote arrangements. Where compliance risks are high, organisations prefer the clarity of relocating expatriates formally. This reflects a regulatory boundary condition on the hybridisation of expatriation where digital models may be technically feasible but legally impractical.

Interestingly, several participants reported an increase in expatriate mobility post-pandemic. H6 observed an expansion in demand:

‘Rather than becoming redundant, expat mobility is actually increasing … my work with mobility is growing.’ (H6)

This echoes survey evidence that most international assignments were postponed rather than cancelled during the pandemic (Lazarova et al., 2023), with a long-term decline in expatriation anticipated by only a minority of companies.

Alternative expatriate role solutions

Alongside the persistence of traditional models, participants reported the rise of alternative assignment forms such as hybrid, virtual and short-term, reflecting both organisational cost strategies and evolving employee preferences.

In some organisations, there was a shift to hybrid and virtual expatriate roles. Cost-efficiency and flexibility drove companies to trial hybrid and virtual expatriation. E1 commented:

‘Companies are trying to reduce traditional expat roles due to cost-saving strategies.’ (E1)

While E6 observed:

‘Many expat roles have taken on a more hybrid nature, and I think that’s a trend we’ll continue to see.’ (E6)

These models balance virtual engagement with periodic site visits, offering both continuity and relationship-building. From the employee perspective, hybrid assignments mitigate the costs and disruptions of full relocation. They particularly appeal to dual-career couples and families, addressing one of the most significant barriers to expatriation (Mello & Tomei, 2021).

An increase in short-term assignments was also evident, and participants noted a pivot towards shorter stints. E3 remarked:

‘It’s more common now to have short-term assignments than the long-term ones we used to see.’ (E3)

While C2 highlighted:

‘There’s more discussion now about shorter stints or virtual deployments.’ (C2)

Conceptually, short-term assignments reflect a move towards modular expatriation: deployments are shorter, targeted and often layered with virtual components. This aligns with broader trends towards flexible resourcing and adaptive global staffing.

The findings demonstrate that expatriation in the post-pandemic environment is neither wholly traditional nor entirely transformed. Instead, it is evolving into a hybrid ecosystem. This shift underscores the pluralisation of expatriate roles. Rather than a single archetype, expatriation now spans a continuum from fully embodied presence to fully virtual contribution. This pluralisation requires fresh attention to how expatriates adjust (across both physical and digital domains), span boundaries (both in person and online) and accumulate career capital in differentiated assignment types.

Discussion

The findings demonstrate how expatriate roles in MNCs have been reshaped by the rapid expansion of hybrid and remote work during and after the COVID-19 pandemic. Figure 1 summarises this transformation as a process unfolding across three phases: immediate disruption, subsequent transition and longer-term evolution, underpinned by a continuous shift in expatriates’ career development and skill demands.

FIGURE 1: Visual representation of key findings.

The first phase captures the immediate shock. The abrupt cessation of travel undermined expatriates’ traditional symbolic presence in host locations, weakening their perceived authority and legitimacy (Harzing et al., 2016; McNulty & Brewster, 2017). Operational constraints and emotional isolation compounded these challenges. Yet remote work also created unexpected benefits, offering flexibility and productivity gains as digital tools substituted for some aspects of on-site coordination. This duality reflects earlier research showing that crises generate both disruption and adaptation (Canhilal et al., 2020; Lazarova et al., 2023).

The transition phase marks a shift from reactive adjustment to more deliberate strategies. Expatriates adopted new leadership approaches, oscillating between tighter digital oversight and trust-based autonomy. Digital platforms such as Teams and Zoom became core infrastructures. A clearer division of labour also emerged: relationship-dependent tasks (negotiation, trust-building, cultural exchange, hands-on supervision) continued to require physical presence, while structured activities (audits, reporting, planning) moved online. A central challenge in this phase was maintaining trust, as virtual communication could not replicate the relational depth typically generated through co-presence (Breuer et al., 2020).

The evolution phase highlights longer-term strategic changes. Traditional expatriation remains essential where cultural immersion or intensive local oversight is required, but MNCs are embracing a broader portfolio of mobility models, including hybrid, short-term and virtual assignments. Hybrid expatriation, combining remote work with periodic on-site presence, has become a particularly salient development, mirroring wider trends towards flexible and project-based global work (Semi, 2021).

Finally, a continuous thread across all phases is the transformation of career dynamics and skill requirements. Expatriates now navigate both opportunities (enhanced HQ connectivity and broader access to roles) and challenges (reduced visibility and weaker informal networks). Their skill profile is expanding to include digital communication, virtual leadership and cross-cultural collaboration in online environments (Liu et al., 2023).

Overall, Figure 1 illustrates expatriation as an adaptive–evolutionary process. Short-term crisis responses are solidifying into new structural patterns of global mobility that balance continuity in traditional expatriation with emerging hybrid and remote forms.

Theoretical contributions

This study is anchored in international human resource management (IHRM) theory, which examines how MNCs manage, deploy and develop human capital across borders (Davis & Luiz, 2015). Within IHRM, expatriation has long been conceptualised as a strategic mechanism for control, coordination, knowledge transfer and leadership development in globally dispersed firms (McNulty & Brewster, 2017). By examining how hybrid and remote work reshape expatriate roles, this study contributes to IHRM theory by showing how global mobility systems are transitioning from relocation-centred models towards multi-modal configurations that integrate digital and embodied forms of international work (Lazarova et al., 2023). In doing so, it situates the evolution of expatriate roles within broader debates about strategic global staffing, coordination and talent development in MNCs. Building on this IHRM foundation, we identify four theoretical contributions.

Firstly, it extends the theory of expatriate adjustment. Traditionally, adjustment focused on adapting to host-country cultures through physical relocation (Mendenhall & Reiche, 2024). The findings show that adjustment is now multi-modal: expatriates must manage both physical and virtual contexts, shifting between remote interactions and selective on-site presence. While digital work enables task completion, legitimacy, visibility and trust still depend heavily on face-to-face engagement. Adjustment therefore extends beyond cultural learning to include navigating digital–physical boundaries.

Secondly, the study expands the theory of boundary spanning. Expatriates have long been seen as bridges between headquarters and subsidiaries, relying on in-person embeddedness to transfer tacit knowledge (Harzing et al., 2016). Today, they span not only geographic but also modality boundaries. Digital tools streamline information flows but risk weakening relational depth, requiring expatriates to judge which activities can occur virtually and which require physical presence. This reframes expatriates as modality intermediaries who coordinate across hybrid work structures.

Thirdly, it refines understanding of expatriation as a source of leadership development and career capital (Mendenhall & Reiche, 2024). Hybrid models disrupt the traditional visibility and networking advantages of being on-site. A visibility paradox emerges: expatriates can maintain strong digital ties to headquarters yet miss informal conversations critical for career advancement. Early-career expatriates are most vulnerable, while senior expatriates with established reputations benefit from flexibility. This highlights the need to reconsider how MNCs evaluate performance, build leadership pipelines and provide developmental opportunities in hybrid environments.

Fourthly, the study revises the theories of expatriates as mechanisms of organisational control and coordination (Eds. Dörrenbächer & Geppert, 2017). Hybrid expatriation blends digital monitoring and knowledge sharing with periodic in-person interaction to build trust and convey tacit knowledge. Expatriates thus become multi-modal coordinators who combine digital oversight with strategically deployed physical presence.

Across these areas, several paradoxes deepen the theoretical understanding. The visibility paradox shows that remote work can increase access and reduce influence. The mobility paradox reflects how reduced relocation broadens participation but limits deep cultural immersion. The control–trust paradox illustrates how digital tools enhance oversight but cannot replace built-in trust. These tensions indicate that expatriate roles are evolving in complex and ambivalent ways, requiring theories that acknowledge both efficiencies and losses in hybrid global work.

At the same time, the digitalisation of expatriate work introduces new tensions around privacy and boundary management. Hybrid expatriates operate at the intersection of home and host contexts while simultaneously being embedded in digitally monitored organisational systems. While digital platforms enhance coordination and transparency, they may also intensify perceptions of surveillance, raise expectations of constant availability and blur the distinction between the professional and private spheres. This suggests that the control–trust paradox is not only organisational but also personal: expatriates must navigate heightened digital visibility while safeguarding their autonomy and well-being. Hybrid expatriation therefore raises important questions about the balance between coordination efficiency and employee privacy within IHRM systems.

Conclusion

Implications and limitations

The findings carry implications for expatriates, MNCs and HR managers. Expatriates now require a hybrid skill set that blends cultural sensitivity and relationship-building with digital fluency and virtual leadership. They must proactively manage visibility through active participation in strategic discussions, consistent digital communication and deliberate cultivation of networks at headquarters. They also need to assess when physical presence adds unique value, such as for negotiations, onboarding or trust-building, and use travel selectively rather than continuously.

For MNCs, the results underscore the need to move beyond uniform mobility models. Assignments should be differentiated based on whether they require sustained local presence or can be delivered via hybrid or remote formats. Mobility policies should formalise compliant hybrid patterns, integrate virtual and short-term assignments into strategy, and invest in digital infrastructure and cybersecurity to support dispersed work.

Human resource managers should strengthen preparation for virtual leadership, digital communication and online trust-building, complementing traditional cultural training. Transparent evaluation systems can mitigate the dynamics of ‘out of sight, out of mind’, while virtual mentoring and networking can support expatriates in their early years of career life, who may struggle with reduced informal interaction.

Human resource managers should be attentive to the privacy and well-being implications of hybrid expatriation. Digital monitoring tools, frequent virtual check-ins and expectations of constant connectivity may inadvertently heighten stress and erode work–life boundaries. Clear guidelines regarding availability, data usage and performance evaluation criteria are essential to prevent hybrid work from becoming overwhelming, particularly for expatriates operating across multiple time zones. Trust-based management practices and explicit boundary-setting mechanisms can mitigate these risks while preserving the coordination benefits of digital tools.

Importantly, the evolution of expatriate roles is unfolding not only in the wake of COVID-19 and digitalisation, but also amid rising geopolitical uncertainty. This context increases visa restrictions, localisation pressures and scrutiny of foreign employees. Hybrid and short-term assignments may therefore function as risk-mitigation strategies, reducing exposure to geopolitical volatility. However, reduced physical immersion can limit expatriates’ ability to navigate sensitive institutional and cultural contexts, highlighting new strategic trade-offs for MNCs.

This study has limitations. The sample’s industry and geographic scope restrict generalisability; future studies should compare sectors and institutional settings. The findings capture a specific post-pandemic moment, making longitudinal research necessary to assess whether hybrid models endure or whether traditional expatriation regains prominence. Finally, host-country coworkers’ views remain largely absent; incorporating their perspectives would deepen understanding of how hybrid expatriates establish legitimacy and integrate locally.

Acknowledgements

This article is based on research originally conducted as part of Lena Klein’s master’s thesis titled ‘The Remote Expatriate: Examining the Adaptation and Evolution of Expatriate Roles in Multinational Corporations During the Post-COVID-19 Era’ submitted to the Graduate School of Business, University of Cape Town, in 2025. The thesis was supervised by John Luiz. The manuscript has been revised and adapted for journal publication. The authors confirm that the content has not been previously published or disseminated and complies with ethical standards for original publication.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article. The author, John Luiz, serves as an editorial board member of this journal. The peer review process for this submission was handled independently, and the author had no involvement in the editorial decision-making process for this article. The authors have no other competing interests to declare.

Lena Klein: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. John Luiz: Conceptualisation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication, and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available due to sensitivity and ethical approval requirements and are available from the corresponding author, John Luiz, upon reasonable request.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and reflect professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.

References