Ubuntu, an African philosophy, emphasises interactions and solidarity among indigenous African communities (Shumbambiri, 2023). This philosophy describes the willingness of individuals and communities to care for and support one another (Van Breda, 2019). Ubuntu is often described by an African maxim ‘umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu’ (in Nguni languages), which translates as ‘a person is a person through other persons’ (Magezi & Khlopa, 2021). In African communities, African ethicists often conceive of social interdependence in terms of how family and community members relate to one another (Adewale, 2020). Salient value is placed on communal functioning within the African context in a way that is uniquely different from that of other non-African cultures, such as Western and European contexts (Adewale, 2020).

Ubuntu is deeply embedded in the African ethics perspectives of contemporary moral theorists and is largely shaped by the worldviews of indigenous black people in sub-Saharan Africa (Magezi & Khlopa, 2021). Several studies (e.g. Adewale, 2020; Samuel, 2023; Udah et al., 2025) highlight a relationship between Ubuntu and ethical values consistent with traditional African values. At its core, the values of Ubuntu that underpin the notion of Afrocentric ethics, include solidarity, compassion, communalism, cooperation, togetherness and respect (Ngubane & Makua, 2021). Other associated ethical values include generosity, hospitality, caring, openness and availability to others. These values are considered vital for social cohesion building within African organisations and communities (Makhubu et al., 2018). Thus, African moral philosophers tend to highlight ‘other-regarding actions and virtues’ commonly associated with altruism as the central virtue characterising Afro-communitarianism (Adewale, 2020).

A common sentiment among scholars is that ethics is a difficult concept to describe and comprehend because of its complex, subjective nature. Ethics is defined as ‘moral principles’ (Hornby et al., 2010, p. 500) that govern the conduct of individuals or groups (Otaye-Ebede et al., 2020). While definitions vary, a common one is the constant expectation from organisations and their stakeholders to adhere to a set of morally sound principles and to act in ways consistent with those principles (Elrayah, 2021; Hadjielias et al., 2025).

The exploration of ethics within an organisational context has typically centred on two primary concepts: ethical climate and ethical culture (e.g. Ogbechie & Anetor, 2015; Otaye-Ebede et al., 2020). Ethical climate is understood as the ‘prevailing perceptions of typical organisational practices and procedures that have ethical content’ (Victor & Cullen, 1988, p. 101) and includes the normative beliefs and values about the moral issues that employees of an organisation share. Ethical culture, on the other hand, pertains to the organisation’s ability to encourage its members to act ethically (Zahari et al., 2024). It includes the aspects and traditions of organisational behaviour that encourage members of an organisation to behave sustainably. Although ethical climate and ethical culture differ, both reflect existing group norms and the shared values of an organisation rather than individual characteristics.

Scholars have long argued that ethical values are an important aspect of an organisation’s ethical culture, and some assert that ethical values are the antecedents of ethical climate and ethical culture (Ogbechie & Anetor, 2015), which in turn influence ethical behaviour in organisations (Reck et al., 2022). Within an organisational context, ethical values are described as reflecting the acceptable behaviours required of employees and management or as the moral principles and standards that govern an individual or group’s conduct (Suriyankietkaew & Kantamara, 2019). Through an ethical culture, ethical values contribute to the moral judgement and behaviour of both individuals and groups within organisations.

The importance of ethics in organisations is immense (Caldeira & Infante-Moro, 2025). To achieve long-term organisational sustainability, organisations should embrace ethical behaviours grounded in morality, compassion and stakeholder care (Suriyankietkaew & Kantamara, 2019). Authors such as Reck et al. (2022) assert that ethical values help strengthen organisational culture, and such cultures have been associated with organisational outcomes, such as innovation and employee well-being (Riivari & Lämsä, 2014), as well as employee commitment to organisational goals and their willingness to report unethical behaviours in the workplace (e.g. Huhtala et al., 2015). Recently, several studies (e.g. Bag et al., 2024; Reck et al., 2022; Tyll et al., 2025) found that an ethical organisational culture enhances employee job commitment and job performance, thereby improving the organisation’s overall performance.

Family businesses are known for their strong, distinctive cultures and values because they are value laden (Kastanakis et al., 2025). It is these values that contribute to the uniqueness and longevity of family businesses, guide their decision-making and sustain business operations (Binz Astrachan et al., 2017). Consequently, examining values in a family business context helps understand sustainable, ethical behaviours in these businesses (Astrachan et al., 2020). The family-centric nature inherent in family businesses tends to link values with the promotion of sustainable, ethical behaviours.

Several scholars (e.g. Chaudhary et al., 2025; Hadjielias et al., 2025) argue that family businesses tend to be more ethical than their non-family counterparts. The ethical difference between them is attributed to family ownership (Astrachan et al., 2020), family involvement, social interactions among family members and the presence of specific values in family businesses (Hadjielias et al., 2025). Owing to the overlap between the family as an institution and the business, the values of founders and business-owning families become the main drivers of ethical behaviour (D’Allura et al., 2023). Earlier research on ethics in family businesses shows that the family’s core values significantly influence their organisation’s ethical climate and culture. Recent research further highlights that the family’s core religious values shape ethical behaviour espoused by the family business (Astrachan et al., 2020; Chaudhary et al., 2025). As a result, founders and business-owning families often have a strong desire to foster longevity and preserve the family reputation as well as to align the business with family values and goals that extend beyond financial returns. By overseeing the business from this perspective, business-owning families are driven by the need to ensure that organisation’s actions and decisions are in line with their broader objectives, including ethical considerations and the preservation of the family’s reputation (Hadjielias et al., 2025).

As the family’s dominant role and involvement in the business create complex overlap between the family and the business (Gjergji et al., 2025), the identity of the family business is almost always evaluated through the lens of family leaders and their owning families (Dieleman & Koning, 2020). Ethical practices in family businesses are seen as a strategy to reduce reputational risks such as legal issues, regulatory violations and reputational damage (Binz Astrachan et al., 2017). Building trust among diverse stakeholders and avoiding unethical practices that can harm the family business’s image are considered essential to the long-term sustainability of family businesses. As a result, family business leaders strive to demonstrate a commitment to ethical values that will enhance the overall protection of family and business identities (Binz Astrachan et al., 2017). Owing to this commitment, it can be argued that family business leaders spend most of their time cultivating ethical values to foster a strong ethical culture and institutionalise ethical behaviour in their organisations.

To answer our research questions, we position our study in an interpretivist paradigm. Our ontological assumptions are that indigenous African family businesses hold multiple and different social meanings and experiences, and that the nature of things in the African context is relational. Furthermore, our epistemological assumptions are premised on the notion that truth is merely the viewpoint of dominant groups in society, and that what counts as valid knowledge is subjective and determined by politically dominant points of view (Saunders et al., 2023). Our study adopts a qualitative methodological approach and a multiple case study design, which aligns with scholars (e.g. López-Nicolás et al., 2024) who assert that family businesses offer a rich and well-suited context to developing new theoretical insights.

Using a purposive criterion sampling, we identified and selected information-rich cases based on their relevance to the phenomenon under investigation, which in our study were IBSA family businesses that fulfilled specific criteria, namely: (1) the family perceiving their business as a family business, (2) active involvement in the primary operations of the business with at least 50 per cent voting rights or shares, (3) having at least one active operating business and (4) demonstrating transgenerational intention. Furthermore, the selected family businesses had to be independently owned and managed by one or more IBSAs, excluding individuals from the Coloured and Indian populations because their values and cultural systems are significantly different from those of the black African population (Baron, 2022; Du Plessis et al., 2015). The focus on IBSA businesses was because of South African’s historical economic inequalities and transformation agenda.

Key participants within each business with whom to undertake interviews were identified and were one or more of the following: (1) a member of the most senior generation of the family business, (2) the business founder and or current controlling family business leader, (3) a family member working in the family business, (4) a non-active family member and (5) a non-family member (see Table 1).

Although qualitative research does not prescribe a fixed sample size (Saunders et al., 2023), this study was guided by the principle of information power, which aligns with the reflexive thematic analysis. Malterud et al. (2016) argue that the more relevant and richer the information held by participants, the fewer participants are needed and vice versa. In light of the study’s aim, the specificity of the sample, the application of established theory, the quality of the interview data and the chosen analytical approach, a relatively small sample was considered appropriate. Accordingly, the study included seven IBSA family business cases, each with at least one key informant.

To support and triangulate the findings, multiple data sources were utilised, which included conducting multiple interviews for each family business (primary data source), engaging in participant observation and analysing secondary data. In most cases, excluding Cases E and G, the interview process was preceded by a site visit to the business premises and branches, allowing for the observation of the physical spaces and artefacts present. These observations offered valuable insights into group dynamics and behaviours within individual settings.

We used a semi-structured interview schedule, which comprised four main sections: (1) demographic information of the participants, (2) family business history, (3) ethical values in family businesses and (4) role of ethical values in family businesses. A total of 17 interviews were conducted involving 17 key participants. Apart from Cases E and G, where interviews were conducted using Microsoft Teams and the telephone, all other interviews took place at the business sites. Interview durations ranged from 33 min to 2 h and 17 min, resulting in approximately 32 h of audio-recorded interviews with the participants’ consent. We promptly transcribed each interview after it was conducted. By interviewing individuals from different positions and generations within the family, we were able to triangulate the data and obtain diverse insights. The addition of business cases and key participants continued until information power was reached, at which point no substantially new information was generated from the data. In addition to semi-structured interviews, relevant organisational documents and publicly available website content were analysed to support data triangulation. Ethical approval (Ref – H19-BES-BMA-004) for our study was obtained from our University’s Research Ethics Committee-Humans (REC-H).

To analyse our data, we employed the six-step reflexive thematic analysis framework outlined by Braun and Clarke (2021). In step one, we transcribed audio data verbatim into Microsoft Word documents, simultaneously noting significant information. Next (step two), we generated initial codes from the data using various coding types and phases. Following Bingham’s (2023) suggestion, we employed both deductive and inductive codes, and we labelled and organised items into meaningful groups. Our use of both deductive and inductive codes aligned well with the abductive reasoning approach we adopted. In step three, we identified patterns and meaningful connections in the code list, initiating theme development. Step four involved reviewing and refining themes by identifying coherent patterns in the codes, aiming to reduce duplications and ambiguities in theme meanings. Table 2 summarises our data structure and codes, illustrating the progression from first-order to second-order level codes and from second-order level codes to aggregate themes. In step five, we utilised the developed themes to conceptualise the story associated with each identified theme. While some of the final themes were developed deductively, some of the themes (e.g. honesty, accountability, professionalism) emerged inductively from the data during the thematic analysis process and were not imposed a priori concepts and themes from existing studies. In the final step (step six), we consolidated all writings, providing a concise account of the narrative conveyed by the data (Braun & Clarke, 2021).

One of the criticisms of Ubuntu is that its distinctiveness is ambiguous and that there are many different interpretations, which contribute to challenges to its applicability in the business sphere (West, 2014). This applicability challenge presents problems in categorising or grouping the values related to Ubuntu, as several values are often associated with this philosophy. For example, common and closely related values such as communalism, solidarity, collectivism, compassion and mutual caring are often used to describe the nature of values associated with Ubuntu (Makhubu et al., 2018; Van Breda, 2019). Given that Ubuntu is essentially relational ethics, emphasising interdependence, communalism, collectivism, caring for others, harmonious relationships and compassion (Udah et al., 2025), we categorised the ethical values identified in our study (Table 2) into three interrelated groups, namely relational, coexistence and compassion values. It is interesting to note that values such as humility, humanness, fairness, open communication, loyalty, respect and trust fit into more than one Ubuntu value category.

Our study has identified seventeen values that underlie ethical decisions and behaviour in family businesses. According to the literature, values are antecedents of ethical business outcomes that contribute to long-term business survival (Ogbechie & Anetor, 2015). Similarly, the values we identified in our study were associated with several business outcomes, namely organisational transparency, employee engagement, customer satisfaction, societal impact, long-term value creation and organisational identity and reputation. These outcomes were developed based on participants’ quotes that suggested associations between ethical values and outcomes. A Sankey diagram was developed to visually represent the proportional relationships between the identified ethical values and business outcomes (See Figure 1).

From Figure 1, it is evident that the importance placed by family businesses on open communication, accountability, trust, professionalism and honesty enhances their organisational transparency. Schnackenberg and Tomlinson (2016, p. 1788) define organisational transparency as ‘the perceived quality of intentionally shared information from a sender’. There is a widely held view that transparency benefits organisational performance by reducing employee uncertainty. As observed in our study, transparency is evident in how the family businesses share confidential information with their employees.

Our study shows that ethical values enhance employee engagement. Values worth noting include employee empowerment and humanness. Family business leaders acknowledge that demonstrating values that care for the development, empowerment and well-being of their employees fosters a working environment where employees feel valued and respected for their contributions to the family business’s success. Demonstrating compassion towards employees has long been associated with high employee outcomes such as morale, commitment and satisfaction (Cao & Chen, 2021). In organisations where compassion is upheld and fostered through employee empowerment and development, employees perceive themselves as being favourably treated by their leaders (Muzee et al., 2021), leading them to stay longer in the business. Associated with employee engagement are the values of professionalism, honesty and respect, which are upheld by the participating family businesses. These values foster working relationships that influence employee working behaviours.

In our study, it is evident that importance is placed on providing quality services and products to customers to enhance customer satisfaction. Other related values, such as respect, honesty, fairness and reliability, were also found to foster customer satisfaction. Organisations that foster ethical values instil trust among their customers, resulting in satisfied, committed customers. Organisational ethical behaviour significantly influences customers’ satisfaction levels (Mansouri et al., 2022).

Participating family businesses acknowledge that most of the identified values contribute positively towards the society and local communities they serve. Values related to societal impact include humanness, benevolence, community and humility. As suggested by Kurznack et al. (2021), the need for organisations to show that they are good corporate citizens who add value to society has never been greater. Our study shows that family businesses engage in socially responsible activities, demonstrating their level of connectedness to the communities they serve. By being socially responsible, family business leaders foster long-term value for their family businesses.

In our study, ethical values were associated with long-term value creation for family businesses. Long-term value creation is fundamental to organisations such as family businesses as it emphasises sustainability and enduring success over an extended period (Kurznack et al., 2021). Long-term value creation implies a focus on optimising financial, social and environmental value over the long term, a focus that provides a more sustainable economic model for businesses (Schoenmaker & Schramade, 2019). The participating family businesses place importance on customer focus, employee empowerment, benevolence and reliability, enabling them to build positive relationships with a broad set of stakeholders and fostering long-term value creation.

Similarly, the organisational identity and reputation of the participating family businesses are mainly influenced by their ethical behaviour and how stakeholders interact with or experience these businesses. The focus of these businesses on ethical values such as employee empowerment, customer focus, professionalism, community, benevolence, humility, fairness and honesty is driven by their need to create a favourable image of their businesses, which contributes to a strong family business reputation. A favourable business reputation is crucial for long-term value creation in family businesses as it contributes to sustainability and longevity.

Our study approached values as antecedents of ethical behaviour and business outcomes in IBSA family businesses. In particular, we aimed to identify ethical values in an indigenous African family business context by applying the Ubuntu philosophy as an alternative to traditional perspectives exploring ethical values. By doing so, this study contributes to the family business literature on values and ethics, as well as to broader conversations in management and organisational behaviour.

Contributing to the growing body of research suggests that ethical values are a source of social information that shapes employees’ responses to events or treatment in their work environment (Zagenczyk et al., 2021), we assert that the ethical values of family businesses serve as a lens that shapes stakeholders’ attributions for ethical decisions and behaviour. That is, ethical decision-making often leads to a positive organisational culture, better relationships with stakeholders (Kurznack et al., 2021), increased trust (Triatmanto & Arifin, 2026) and enhanced organisational reputation (Binz Astrachan et al., 2017), all of which contribute to the sustainability and longevity of family businesses.

Drawing on Ubuntu, our study advances knowledge of ethical values in family businesses by proposing a new framework for categorising and understanding these values. It is our anticipation that the proposed framework of value categories, namely relational, coexistence and compassion values, can help overcome long-standing intellectual conflicts on the nature of ethical values and Ubuntu in the African context and provide a conceptual basis flexible enough to encompass the fluidity and plurality of values associated with Ubuntu. Specifically, the framework for value categories can help scholars to apply ethical values in a business context.

The identification of ethical values in IBSA family businesses is important for preserving their organisational identities. As cultures are systems of values that subconsciously and silently drive people to make decisions in organisations, values are central to the formation of organisational identity (Ratnawati et al., 2024). In this study, we argue that ethical values are seen as reflecting the organisational identities of family businesses as they represent what they stand for and what they do (Hay et al., 2021).

Exploring the manifestations of ethical values helps family businesses make a social impact in the communities they serve and build positive stakeholder relationships (e.g. employees, customers and suppliers) (Kurznack et al., 2021). By understanding the ethical values that influence decision-making and behaviour (Reck et al., 2022), family businesses can align their practices with values that contribute to long-term sustainability. As ethical values are antecedents of ethical behaviour in organisations (Ogbechie & Anetor, 2015), they provide clarity about behavioural expectations within family businesses. That is, our study provides a framework for ethical conduct, helping family and non-family business members understand the standards and behaviours that are valued and expected in these businesses. As Reck et al. (2022) highlight, in-depth research into the ethical behaviour of family businesses can provide invaluable insights for decision-making.

The identified ethical values in this study were related to relational, coexistence and compassion values. Therefore, we recommend that family businesses adopt values that are relational in nature (e.g. respect, trust, honesty, open communication, reliability, fairness) to foster connections, communication and mutual understanding with stakeholders. For example, family businesses should treat internal and external stakeholders respectfully and without discrimination. Similarly, transparency should be fostered in financial matters and business decisions by sharing relevant information with family members and employees, promoting trust and respecting contributions from all members. Furthermore, family business leaders can promote open communication by clearly defining policies, roles and responsibilities for family members and employees. Creating regular forums, such as team-building sessions, where family and non-family employees will feel comfortable expressing their opinions and concerns, is also suggested. We envisage that promoting relational values in family businesses will help avoid misunderstandings and conflicts while cultivating a positive work environment.

We recommend that coexistence values (e.g. diversity, respect, accountability, hard work, humanness, humility and open communication) should be promoted to nurture harmonious interactions and cooperation among individuals and groups in family businesses. That is, family businesses can promote inclusivity by hiring diverse employees and listening to and appreciating different viewpoints. Demonstrating receptivity to diverse opinions and perspectives will foster a more inclusive and collaborative family business environment where all employees feel a sense of belonging, enabling them to align with the family business’s values and purpose.

Furthermore, we suggest that family businesses embrace compassion values (e.g. benevolence, community, customer focus and employee empowerment) because these are rooted in the ethical principles of empathy, understanding and mutual care (Miralles-Armenteros & Guinot, 2023). Showing empathy towards employees by actively listening to their concerns and offering employee assistance programmes that support employee personal development sets the tone for a compassionate organisational culture, one that creates a sense of interconnectedness among employees. Similarly, engaging in socially responsible initiatives reflects the family business’s commitment to making a positive impact on society and local communities. Since family businesses are well known for promoting non-financial goals that address social challenges (Binz Astrachan et al., 2017), upholding and demonstrating compassion values could drive positive change in local communities where family businesses operate, thereby reinforcing their embeddedness in social and local issues.

While we believe that family businesses should embrace ethical values, we recommend upholding them to foster sustainable ethical behaviours that contribute to business outcomes. Ethical values such as customer focus, employee empowerment and reliability are crucial in developing long-term value, which is important for the sustainability of family businesses. We suggest that other ethical values that contribute towards the creation of long-term value for the business should not be neglected by leaders. Therefore, societal impact, organisational transparency and organisational reputation should be considered to fully maximise long-term value creation in family businesses.

We further argue that embracing and promoting ethical values can serve as a unique selling proposition for family businesses. In today’s global marketplace, consumers often prefer organisations that demonstrate social responsibility and ethical behaviour, providing a competitive advantage (Kurznack et al., 2021). Therefore, by identifying these ethical value sets and their associations with business outcomes, family business scholars, practitioners and stakeholders can understand how they manifest in a family business context.

Our study has some limitations that offer interesting avenues for future research. Initially, our study examined ethical values at the organisational level and did not identify differences among the ethical subcultures within the family businesses under investigation. Future studies may be important to demonstrate that ethical subcultures are relevant to the study of ethical values in family businesses. For example, future research may investigate the ethical value sets upheld by different family business subcultures, including founders and leaders, next-generation family employees and non-family employees. Furthermore, although our study utilised a mix of old and young family businesses, our focus was not on comparing the ethical value sets within these businesses. In this regard, we recommend conducting a comparative study to identify similarities and differences between older and younger family businesses. In addition, future studies could examine the manifestations of ethical values in other population groups, such as Coloured-, Asian- and White-South African-run family businesses. The inclusion of other population groups will provide greater insights into comparative dynamics across diverse ownership groups, enriching contextual understanding.