The dairy industry forms a vital part of the global food supply chain, contributing significantly to food security, employment and economic growth. This is especially the case in developing countries where the dairy sector supports millions of livelihoods, thus playing a key role in poverty reduction and rural development (Chouinard et al., 2008; IbrāHīM et al., 2020). In developed economies such as the United States and the United Kingdom, dairy production accounts for 3.5% and 16.4% of agricultural output, respectively, considered to be substantial portions (DairyNewsToday, 2025; International Dairy Foods Association [IDFA], 2021). However, the industry’s continued viability increasingly depends not only on productivity but also on its ability to integrate sustainable and collaborative practices across supply chain stages – from farm to consumer.

Globally, the dairy supply chain (DSC) faces growing pressures from climate change, volatile markets, resource scarcity and rising consumer expectations for sustainability (Argon & Co, 2025). Consequently, transitioning towards environmentally responsible and socially inclusive dairy production has become a strategic priority. Collaboration among stakeholders has emerged as a cornerstone for achieving sustainability under complex and resource-constrained conditions (Wang & Ran, 2018). Collaborative governance enables supply chain actors to share resources, coordinate actions and build resilience against systemic uncertainties (More et al., 2015). In the dairy sector context, collaboration can reduce food losses, enhance product quality and foster innovation through the exchange of knowledge and technology (Romadlon et al., 2025).

Despite its importance, collaboration in the dairy sector remains constrained by structural, technological and managerial barriers. Factors such as limited digital infrastructure, financial constraints and regulatory inefficiencies particularly constrain collaboration in developing regions (Nalluri et al., 2025; Vuvor et al., 2025). Studies across agricultural supply chains reveal that while collaboration enhances sustainability and competitiveness (Gouiferda & Iddik, 2024; Sudusinghe & Seuring, 2022), its effectiveness depends on the enabling conditions within the institutional, technological and socio-economic environments. This is especially true under resource-constrained contexts where trust, communication and equitable benefit-sharing are critical but often lacking (Papaioannou et al., 2020). Mishra et al. (2024) observed that effective collaboration among stakeholders in agricultural sectors is essential for overcoming structural barriers and fostering sustainable development outcomes. In resource-constrained economies such as Zimbabwe, the view held by dairy industry partners that collaboration is a means to achieve sustainability remains under-explored (Al-Ramahi et al., 2024).

The Zimbabwe’s dairy sector continues to encounter significant barriers, such as limited collaboration, insufficient resource sharing and inadequate infrastructural support, which threaten the industry’s sustainability and long-term viability (Matangaidze et al., 2023). The significance of collaboration within the dairy sector is underscored by its potential to mitigate challenges such as resource scarcity, fragmented distribution channels and inefficient production processes (Tan et al., 2024). Recent empirical evidence underscores the value of integrating cross-functional coordination and government partnerships to improve sustainability outcomes (Bunchongpru & Maneerattanarungrot, 2025; Sánchez-Navarro et al., 2024). However, there remains a paucity of studies that have investigated collaboration among industry stakeholders and how it influences the sustainability of Zimbabwe’s DSCs through practitioners’ perspectives. Understanding how collaboration influences sustainability can inform policy and practice dairy sector operating under resource-constrained contexts, such as Zimbabwe.

Accordingly, this study investigates collaboration among industry stakeholders and how it influences the sustainability of Zimbabwe’s DSCs through practitioners’ perspectives. Specifically, it explores the factors that impede and facilitate collaborative practices. By doing so, the study contributes to the growing discourse on sustainable supply chain management by integrating collaboration theory with empirical insights from the dairy industry – a sector that lies at the intersection of food security, economic development and environmental stewardship. This study draws on two complementary theoretical perspectives to examine collaborative dynamics in DSCs. Resource dependence theory (RDT) (Pfeffer & Salancik, 2015) explains how resource constraints shape inter-organisational relationships. Dynamic capabilities theory (DCT) (Teece, 2018) frames how firms develop collaborative competencies to adapt to changing environments. These theories collectively provide a lens for understanding how structural conditions influence collaborative capacity in resource-constrained contexts. Hence, the study examined collaboration among industry stakeholders and how it influences the sustainability of Zimbabwe’s DSCs through practitioners’ perspectives.

This qualitative study employed semi-structured interviews with 25 DSC practitioners to examine collaboration among industry stakeholders and how it influences the sustainability of Zimbabwe’s DSCs. Participants were purposively selected based on their extensive industry experience and representation across different stages of the supply chain, including milk producers, processors, logistics coordinators, distributors and regulatory officials. Data saturation was reached after the 23rd interview, with two additional interviews conducted to enhance robustness. All interviews were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim following informed consent. Thematic analysis was conducted using ATLAS.ti (version 9.1), following Braun and Clarke’s (2022) six-phase framework. Initial coding captured key concepts related to collaboration and sustainability challenges, which were subsequently refined into coherent themes aligned with the research questions. Trustworthiness was ensured through prolonged engagement with participants, detailed audit trails, rich contextual descriptions and reflexive practices (Nowell et al., 2017).

Table 1 presents the participants’ profiles of the 25 supply chain practitioners interviewed for this study and includes participants’ roles, years of experience, qualifications, gender, age and location.

Participants were drawn from key economic regions – Harare, Bulawayo, Mutare and Kwekwe – which serve as major hubs of Zimbabwe’s dairy industry. Their professional experience ranged from 4 years to 21 years, and their educational qualifications spanned from diplomas to doctoral degrees. This diversity ensured that the insights obtained were grounded in substantial industry knowledge, practical expertise and contextual understanding of the DSC.

This study revealed that collaboration within Zimbabwe’s DSC is shaped by an interplay of interdependence, knowledge networks, power dynamics, resource constraints, infrastructure limitations and environmental pressures. Stakeholders increasingly recognise the interdependent nature of the value chain, particularly between farmers and processors, reflecting value-enhancing collaborative relationships where complementary resources generate mutual benefits (Irfan, 2021). However, collaboration manifests unevenly, with stronger connections between farmers and veterinarians than between processors and retailers, illustrating asymmetrical integration across relational interfaces (Verghese et al., 2022). In terms of Theme 1, a strong interdependence between farmers and processors aligns with RDT, which posits that organisations acknowledge and manage dependencies as precursors to collaboration (Pfeffer & Salancik, 2015). The reciprocal reliance between farmers and processors exemplifies Casciaro and Piskorski’s (2005) notion of mutual dependence, where bidirectional needs mitigate power asymmetries. Recognising the value of interdependence is thus a necessary precursor to value-creating collaboration, especially in sectors with perishable, time-sensitive products.

In line with Theme 2, knowledge exchange networks – through field days, multi-stakeholder platforms and industry associations – emerge as critical infrastructures for collaborative capability development. These networks facilitate technical skill development, policy coordination, disease management and market intelligence sharing (Dyer & Singh, 1998; Teece, 2018). Yet disparities in access between commercial and small-scale actors limit equitable collaborative benefits, reinforcing power asymmetries (Stoeva et al., 2024). Participants emphasised that knowledge networks must evolve beyond operational problem solving to long-term strategic visioning, reflecting Mehdikhani and Valmohammadi’s (2019) observation that sustainable agricultural supply chains require both operational knowledge sharing and collaborative strategic planning. The knowledge exchange networks illustrate what Teece (2018) refers to as sensing capabilities – the ability to identify opportunities through collective learning. Regular interactions, such as field days and stakeholder forums, help build absorptive capacity (Cohen & Levinthal, 1990), strengthening system-wide adaptive potential.

Theme 3 revealed persistent power asymmetries that shape collaboration outcomes across Zimbabwe’s dairy value chain. Persistent power asymmetries shape collaboration by influencing pricing, profit distribution and decision-making authority (Malik & Hingley, 2021; Wang et al., 2024). Vertical disparities are particularly pronounced between input suppliers and farmers and between processors and retailers, undermining trust and constraining knowledge flows. Processors’ feed-financing arrangements exemplify hybrid governance mechanisms that partially internalise transactions while maintaining market relationships (Cao & Zhang, 2011; Ménard, 2004). The dual role of power – coercive versus legitimate – further explains why some collaborative relationships flourish despite similar structural conditions (Cai et al., 2013).

As emerged in Theme 4, resource constraints were seen as a central barrier to effective collaboration and sustainability. Resource constraints, particularly high feed costs, input access difficulties and regulatory compliance burdens, represent major barriers to collaboration (Adriant et al., 2021). Feed constitutes 60% – 76% of production expenses, severely limiting financial flexibility. Self-sufficiency strategies, such as on-farm feed production and silage management, illustrate adaptive reconfiguration of resources to reduce dependence on external actors, consistent with Teece’s (2018) dynamic capabilities framework and Tosi and Marty’s (2024) coordination mechanisms. Nevertheless, these strategies remain limited in effectiveness without institutional support (Myeni et al., 2021). The resource constraints reinforce asymmetric dependence (Gulati & Sytch, 2007), where resource-poor actors remain vulnerable within the supply chain.

As per Theme 5, infrastructure and technical capacity limitations further constrain collaboration. Inadequate electricity, poor road networks, unreliable cold chains and limited technical expertise elevate transaction costs and reduce operational resilience (Hernández-Socha & Zuluaga-Jiménez, 2024; Williamson, 2014). Inclusive value chain approaches, where large-scale actors support small holders and exemplify hybrid governance structures addressing both capacity gaps and transaction costs (Parshotam & Revilla Diez, 2019). Stakeholders emphasised the need for technological advancement beyond incremental improvements, reflecting dual challenges of addressing deficiencies while attempting technological leapfrogging.

According to Theme 6, environmental sustainability and climate resilience emerged as both the challenges and catalysts for collaboration. Climate change impacts, including erratic rainfall and pasture degradation, affect all stakeholders, creating a shared urgency that can transcend traditional power and resource barriers (Safdar et al., 2024). Collaborative initiatives such as biogas production and renewable energy adoption illustrate dynamic capability development – sensing environmental threats, seizing collaborative opportunities and reconfiguring operations for sustainability (Rasul, 2021). These initiatives reflect circular supply chain principles and proactive ecological management, suggesting that environmental pressures may catalyse deeper collaboration than market incentives alone (Lavelli, 2021).

The six themes reveal systemic interconnections shaping collaborative dynamics. Recognition of interdependence underpins knowledge exchange networks, yet both are constrained by power asymmetries. Resource and infrastructure limitations compound these challenges, restricting participation in collaborative networks and reinforcing structural inequalities. Environmental pressures provide a unifying impetus for collective action, prompting adaptation and innovation despite pre-existing constraints. Collaborative mechanisms thus develop along paths of least resistance, flourishing where power is balanced and resources sufficient, while stagnating where structural constraints dominate.

A critical insight is that environmental sustainability can override conventional barriers. Renewable energy adoption and biogas initiatives exemplify collaborative solutions emerging from shared ecological challenges rather than economic optimisation. Such crisis-driven collaboration highlights that, in resource-constrained contexts, collaboration functions as a survival mechanism as much as a performance-enhancing strategy. Unlike in resource-abundant economies, where collaboration primarily addresses efficiency or competitive advantage, in Zimbabwe’s dairy sector, it addresses scarcity, infrastructure deficiencies and climate vulnerabilities.

These findings extend the collaborative supply chain theory by showing that foundational determinants that include power, resources, infrastructure and environmental pressures act as boundary conditions rather than mere contextual factors. Effective collaboration arises where interdependence is acknowledged, knowledge networks are accessible, power asymmetries are managed, resources are adequate, infrastructure is sufficient and environmental pressures demand collective action. This underscores the need for context-sensitive frameworks that account for structural constraints and adaptive capacities, rather than assuming universal applicability of models developed in developed economies. In conclusion, Zimbabwe’s DSC demonstrates that collaboration is selective, adaptive and shaped by systemic factors. Policy interventions, inclusive knowledge networks and adaptive infrastructure support are essential to enhance sustainability. Recognising the interplay of interdependence, power dynamics, resource limitations and environmental pressures offers critical guidance for scholars and practitioners aiming to foster sustainable DSCs in developing economies.

This study intended to examine collaboration among industry stakeholders and how it influences the sustainability of Zimbabwe’s DSCs through practitioners’ perspectives. Six critical themes emerged: value chain interdependence, knowledge exchange networks, power dynamics, resource constraints, infrastructure and technical limitations and environmental sustainability challenges. These findings reveal that while collaboration is widely recognised as essential for achieving sustainability, its realisation remains constrained by systemic inequities, resource shortages and institutional weaknesses.

The study makes a significant contribution to sustainable supply chain management by developing the Dairy Industry Collaboration and Integration Framework (DICIF), which conceptualises how foundational determinants shape collaborative mechanisms and outcomes in developing economies. The framework extends existing theories by contextualising collaboration within environments characterised by scarcity and institutional fragility.

Practically, the findings highlight the need for industry actors to adopt inclusive, strategically aligned collaborative models that address structural imbalances, enhance infrastructure capacity and embed environmental sustainability into operational strategies. For policymakers, the study underscores the importance of enabling policies and institutional coordination to strengthen resource access and equitable participation across the supply chain. Collectively, these insights provide a solid foundation for improving collaboration to enhance the resilience, competitiveness and sustainability of Zimbabwe’s dairy sector.

Theoretically, the study advances three key perspectives. Firstly, it extends RDT by illustrating how scarcity drives collective interdependence beyond dyadic relationships. Secondly, it contributes to DCT by demonstrating how collaborative capabilities evolve incrementally under severe constraints. The DICIF framework thus offers a nuanced understanding of how collaboration operates as both a necessity and a strategy for sustainability in resource-constrained supply chains.