Abstract
Purpose: In recent decades, the tourism sector has become an important sector in many countries as it is one of the driving forces of the economy, along with global economic growth and increasing public interest in exploring tourist destinations. This study aims to explore the relationship between cultural image (CI) and local food (LF) on tourist satisfaction (TS) and intention to revisit (RI), with tourist attitude (TA) as a moderator for tourists in three cities in Indonesia (Bandung, Yogyakarta and Medan).
Design/methodology/approach: Questionnaires are distributed to 308 respondents chosen using purposive sampling. The data obtained is processed using structural equation modelling with partial least square.
Findings/results: Revisit intention (RI) is directly influenced by CI and LF. Tourist satisfaction plays an important role as a mediator in explaining the relationship between CI and LF on RI.
Practical implications: Cultural heritage and attractive local cuisine must be emphasised to increase tourists’ satisfaction and encourage them to return.
Originality/value: This study clarifies how CI and LF influence TS and RI in Indonesian cities. It offers insights for promoting cultural heritage and cuisine to boost satisfaction and encourage repeat visits, aiding sustainable tourism growth.
Keywords: cultural image; local food; tourist attitude; tourist satisfaction; revisit intention.
Introduction
Cultural heritage plays a pivotal role in shaping tourism experiences, as it offers a sense of identity and continuity that resonates with both local and international visitors (Satrya et al., 2024; Zhou et al., 2023). It encompasses traditions, arts, historical landmarks, and practices that provide travellers with meaningful and memorable interactions (Carr, 2008; Vong, 2013). The allure of cultural heritage lies not only in its ability to showcase the uniqueness of a destination but also its potential to foster deeper connections with the past and local communities (Lestari et al., 2013; Mai et al., 2019; Saufi et al., 2014). For tourists, destinations rich in cultural heritage often stand out as must-visit locations, with the authenticity and immersive experiences, and it can lead to their intention to revisit (Chiu et al., 2016; Suhartanto et al., 2018). This underscores the importance of understanding how cultural heritage elements, such as cultural image (CI) and local food (LF), contribute to tourist satisfaction (TS) and their intention to revisit the destination.
Nguyen et al. (2020) found that cultural interactions that occur in a destination can be an important factor influencing TS. In addition, tourists’ curiosity about local culture contributes positively to the local tourism industry (Satrya et al., 2024). Tourists’ curiosity about local culture, which is an integral part of the CI of the destination, can provide tourists with experiences through attractions, local traditions, arts and festivals (Herrero et al., 2017; Kusumah, 2024; Shahrivar, 2012). Apart from the CI, LF in a destination is an important factor that can affect TS and revisit intention (RI) (Mgonja et al., 2017; Rehman et al., 2022). As suggested by Dao (2019), images of local culinary food are increasingly used in tourism marketing strategies to attract tourists. This is because authentic local cuisine is often considered an important attraction that enriches the travel experience and increases TS (Dao, 2019; Wani et al., 2024). Previous research has also shown that some tourists visit a destination not only because of the attraction but also because of their interest in LF in the destination itself (Björk & Kauppinen-Räisänen, 2016).
In addition to enhancing the destination image, the characteristics of LF can give tourists a deep and authentic impression (Wani et al., 2024). Local food, which is a cuisine sourced or produced within a region (Dao, 2019), has evolved beyond mere sustenance into a significant aspect of the tourist experience, and it serves as a social event and fun entertainment for tourists (Fei et al., 2020). As Martinez et al. (2010) noted, LF is an important part of any holiday. A recent study by Wani et al. (2024) found that one third of the money spent by tourists in a place is spent on food. As such, food emerges as a central element of the travel experience (Komariah et al., 2020).
Several cities in Indonesia, particularly Bandung, Yogyakarta and Medan, stand out as destinations rich in cultural heritage. These cities offer immersive experiences through their unique traditions, arts, historical landmarks and vibrant local cuisines (Juliana et al., 2022; Pratminingsih et al., 2022). These cultural interactions and LF experiences are not only vital in preserving local identity but also play an important role in attracting tourists, as it contributes to both economic growth and social development. Tourism in these cities has significantly boosted the local economy, particularly through the cultural and culinary tourism sectors, which have become key drivers of employment and income generation (Aman et al., 2019; Lestari et al., 2023). In addition, cultural heritage tourism creates a lasting impact on the communities by enhancing their cultural pride while offering a unique, authentic experience for tourists.
While prior studies have explored the individual roles of destination image and cultural elements in influencing tourist behaviour (Astor et al., 2024; Chen & Tsai, 2007; Cong, 2021), limited research has examined how the interplay between CI and LF, as part of cultural heritage, shapes TS and RI, especially in Indonesia. Furthermore, there is a paucity of studies that investigate the moderating role of tourist attitude (TA) in this relationship (Huang & Van der Veen, 2019). By addressing this gap, this study contributes to the literature on cultural heritage tourism by examining the combined effects of CI, LF and TS as mediator on RI, with TA as a moderator (Figure 1). Tourist attitudes, which reflect the feelings, beliefs and evaluations of travel experiences, can either strengthen or weaken the influence of CI and LF on RI. This study also offers practical insights for destination managers to enhance their marketing strategies and improve tourist experiences, especially in destinations with strong cultural and culinary identities.
Literature review and hypothesis development
Cultural image and revisit intention
Kusumah (2024) defined CI as the perceptions, beliefs and feelings that TA has about the culture of a destination, including history and traditions. A strong CI of a destination can enhance its attractiveness and influence tourists’ expectations, which in turn affects their intention to revisit (Cárdenas-García et al., 2016; Shahrivar, 2012). Cultural attractions, festivals, arts and traditions that carry cultural or historical significance are crucial in shaping tourists’ perceptions of a destination (Frank & Medaric, 2019; Herrero et al., 2017). For instance, the preservation of cultural and historical sites is a powerful factor that can influence tourists’ impressions, thus increasing RI (Kusumah, 2024). This happens because such sites not only offer visitors a tangible connection to a destination’s past but also evoke a sense of authenticity and heritage, which enriches the overall travel experience. As tourists form meaningful connections with these cultural landmarks, they are more likely to feel a desire to return and relive those experiences.
The CI that exists in a destination must be maintained as an identity that can be a competitive advantage in retaining tourists and boosting its attractiveness (Abbasi et al., 2019; Carr, 2008; Mckercher & Du Cros, 2012). Beerli-Palacio and Martín-Santana (2018) argued that, in the context of tourism, a strong CI has a profound impact on tourists’ experiences and satisfaction by enhancing their emotional connection with the destination. This emotional bond can result from a compelling cultural narrative, such as one communicated through festivals or other authentic cultural elements, which resonate deeply with visitors and create lasting memories (Lai et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2014). Consequently, such positive emotional experiences foster a desire for repeat visits, as tourists tend to seek out destinations that offer authentic cultural experiences (Herrero et al., 2017; Kusumah, 2024). Previous research has confirmed that tourists who seek authentic experiences, both subjective and existential authenticity, are more likely to return to destinations that successfully convey their unique cultural heritage (Astor et al., 2024; Satrya et al., 2024). Based on this, the first hypothesis is proposed as follows:
H1: Cultural image has a positive effect on RI.
Local food and revisit intention
Food or culinary experiences have become one of the attractive factors for tourists to visit a destination (Mgonja et al., 2017). Local food and tourism are closely linked, as culinary experiences often play an important role in tourists’ overall satisfaction with their trip (Rehman et al., 2022). Tourists feel more connected to the places they visit when they enjoy food that reflects the culture (Wani et al., 2024; Zhu et al., 2024). Fei et al. (2020) as well as Kim and Eves (2012) stated that LF has great potential to support tourism growth and increase TS. As such, LF-related culinary experiences are recognised as an important component of the overall tourism experience (Mak et al., 2012; Rehman et al., 2022; Sims, 2009).
Consuming LF offers several benefits for both tourists and the destination. In addition to taste and quality value, health benefits play a significant role when tourists consider food options in a destination (Pakhalov & Dosaykina, 2021; Zhu et al., 2024). Many tourists are increasingly concerned with consuming locally sourced and healthier food, which supports the idea of sustainable tourism, as it promotes local agricultural practices and reducing food miles (Galati et al., 2023; Sims, 2009; Wani et al., 2024). Moreover, LF consumption encourages the growth of small businesses, such as family-owned restaurants and food markets, and it further benefits the local economy (Fei et al., 2020). According to Lai (2015), most tourists have positive attitudes towards LF when they experience authentic flavours, enjoy rich cultural experiences, and receive friendly service from locals. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H2: Local food has a positive effect on RI.
Tourist satisfaction as mediating variable
Tourist satisfaction, as defined by Nguyen et al. (2020), describes a feeling of pleasure that visitors experience after spending time in a particular destination. This can depend on several things such as the quality of services (such as accommodation, transport and attractions), a sense of safety and security, the friendliness of people, as well as the culture of the destination and specialities (Chen & Phou, 2013; Janeček et al., 2023). Vong (2013) mentioned that a destination’s cultural assets – whether tangible (e.g. monuments, historical landmarks) or intangible (e.g. traditions, festivals and cultural interactions) – can enhance its image and competitive advantage, which in turn can increase tourists’ satisfaction and their desire to return. Therefore, the CI of a destination should be protected as an aspect that can be sustained in the long term to attract and retain tourists (Kusumah, 2024). Tourist satisfaction will increase if the city has a good cultural reputation. Through the satisfaction that tourists feel during their visit, the CI of a destination can be further strengthened (Atsiz & Akova, 2021; Zeng, 2017; Zhu et al., 2024). The positive experience of a tourist visit not only enhances the image of the destination itself but also creates an impression that encourages the desire to return. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:
H3: Tourist satisfaction mediates the relationship between CI and RI.
According to Li et al. (2018) and Zhang et al. (2018), RI has been identified as a tourists’ propensity to revisit a destination. For example, a tourist may revisit a destination if they have a more satisfying trip because of their impressions of both the CI and food characteristics of the destination (Kim & Eves, 2012; Mak et al., 2012). Satrya et al. (2024) stated that when tourists enjoy authentic LF, they not only have a unique culinary experience, but also feel the cultural richness of the destination. This perceived experience leads to satisfaction, which creates a positive impression and thus increases tourists’ intention to revisit the destination (Ali et al., 2020; Astor et al., 2024). In this way, authentic LF not only enriches the tourist’s experience but also increases their desire to return, thereby supporting the growth and sustainability of the local tourism industry. In this regard, TS can act as the mediator that bridges the relationship of LF and RI:
H4: Tourist satisfaction mediates the relationship between LF and RI
Tourist attitude as moderating variable
According to Ajzen (1991), attitude is a collection and consideration inherent in a person that is formed from an experience. Huang & Van Der Veen (2019) stated that attitude is an evaluation that triggers emotions in influencing behaviour, either positively or negatively. According to Ervina and Octaviany (2022), attitude is divided into three main dimensions, namely cognitive, affective and behavioural intention. Previous research has shown that the CI of a destination can shape tourists’ perceptions and thus influence their intention to return (Hsu & Huang, 2012; Huang & Hsu, 2009). Several empirical studies have confirmed the impact of tourists’ attitudes on their RIs (Choe et al., 2018; Ervina & Octaviany, 2022; Huang & Hsu, 2009). However, TA may moderate this relationship by amplifying the impact of CI on RI. Specifically, tourists who hold positive attitudes towards a destination’s CI are more likely to feel an emotional connection to the destination. This connection enhances their evaluation of the cultural aspects, leading to a stronger intention to revisit (Abbasi et al., 2022; Choe et al., 2018). Conversely, negative attitudes can weaken this connection, reducing the likelihood of revisiting even if the CI is objectively strong. For instance, Abbasi et al. (2022) demonstrated that positive TAs significantly enhance RI in Malaysia, even when levels of satisfaction fluctuate. Similarly, Huang and Van Der Veen (2019) emphasised that tourists with a strong appreciation and value for the cultural uniqueness of a destination are more likely to form positive evaluations, reinforcing their desire to return.
Therefore, TAs towards CI act as a filter, which magnifies the effects of CI on RI (Komariah et al., 2020).
In addition to CI, TAs towards local cuisine have a positive effect on attitude formation (Choe & Kim, 2018). Tourists tend to be more subjective in evaluating food in tourist destinations based on taste preferences and cultural background (Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Mak et al., 2012; Sims, 2009). It has also been stated that eating LF can leave a lasting impression on tourists, thus increasing their RI to the destination (Ali et al., 2020). Therefore, tourists’ intention can be identified as a plan that reflects their desire to visit a destination based on their experience with LF, which is often influenced by factors such as satisfaction with food quality, culinary uniqueness, and the authentic experience they gain during the visit (Dao, 2019; Zhu et al., 2024). Thus, when TAs towards LF are high, the influence of LF on RI increases (Choe et al., 2018; Rehman et al., 2022). This is because positive experiences with LF often reinforce the desire to return and explore the destination further:
H5a: Tourist attitude moderates the effect of the relationship between CI and RI. This effect will be higher if tourist attitude has a positive effect on CI.
H5b: Tourist attitude moderates the effect of the relationship between LF and RI. This effect will be higher if TAs towards LF have a positive effect.
Methodology
Research setting
To investigate factors influencing RI, the study focuses on three Indonesian destinations: Bandung, Yogyakarta and Medan. These cities were selected based on their cultural richness, diverse culinary experiences and significance as major tourist destinations in Indonesia. According to the GoodStats survey titled Kota Pilihan Masyarakat Indonesia 2024, Yogyakarta was chosen as the most popular tourist city with 71.2% preference because of its rich cultural heritage and historical attractions. Bandung ranked third with 52.4%, renowned for its unique culinary offerings and cool climate, alongside preserved natural attractions such as Taman Hutan Raya (Tahura) and Babakan Siliwangi. Medan, as the capital of North Sumatra, is the fourth-largest city in Indonesia and the largest outside Java, known for its cultural diversity and culinary richness. The choice of these cities is also supported by factors such as their wide range of attractions (65%), stunning natural beauty (54%), historical landmarks (41%), delicious culinary options (36%) and well-developed tourism infrastructure (31%).
Sampling and sample size
The study employed purposive sampling to gather data from domestic tourists who had previously visited one or more of the selected destinations. This sampling method was appropriate because of the exploratory nature of the research and the need to include respondents with relevant experience. Inclusion criteria for participation required respondents to have visited at least one of the three destinations and to have experienced the LF during their visit. Exclusion criteria included respondents with no prior visits to these destinations or those unable to provide valid responses to the survey items. The sample size of 308 respondents was determined based on recommendations for exploratory studies with unknown populations. While specific population data for tourists visiting these cities are not available, the sample size aligns with Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) guidelines for unknown populations. Domestic tourists were the primary focus, given their significant contribution to tourism in these cities.
Research instrument
The study utilised a structured questionnaire consisting of three main sections: respondent profiles, respondent characteristics and research variables. The questionnaire items were adapted from validated scales in the literature and tailored to the study context. Responses to all research variables were recorded using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A total of 28 items were included, as detailed in Table 1.
Cultural image is measured by six items adopted from previous research (Kim & Ritchie, 2014), an example item is ‘cultural traditions in a destination are interesting to revisit’. Local food is measured by seven items adopted from previous research (Choe & Kim, 2018). Next, TA is measured by six items adopted from Huang and Van Der Veen (2019). Tourist satisfaction is measured by five items adopted from Kusumah (2024) and Nguyen et al. (2020). Finally, RI is measured by four items adopted from Nguyen et al. (2020).
Data collection
Data collection was conducted online using Google Forms to ensure broad reach and convenience for respondents. The survey was distributed through social media platforms and targeted tourism-related online communities and forums. Efforts were made to reach respondents who matched the inclusion criteria by using targeted invitations and screening questions at the beginning of the survey.
To ensure ethical compliance, the study received approval from Universitas Medan Area under research project number 15/P3MPI/3.3/VI11/2024 Participants were informed about the study’s purpose, assured of confidentiality, and provided with an option to withdraw at any stage. No personally identifiable information was collected to maintain anonymity.
Data analysis
The collected data were analysed using SmartPLS 3.0 for partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). This method was selected because of its suitability for exploratory research and its ability to handle complex models with latent constructs.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Universitas Medan Area Research Ethics Committee (No. 15/P3MPI/3.3/VI11/2024).
Results
Respondent profile
The profile of the respondents in this study shows that the majority of the 308 respondents are female (54%). The respondents are domestic tourists who have visited three major cities in Indonesia: Bandung (33%), Medan (32%) and Yogyakarta (35%). In terms of education, most have an S1 degree (29%), followed by D3 graduates (28%) and S2 graduates (19%). The most common occupation among respondents is freelancer (35%), with entrepreneurs (24%) and private employees (23%) also represented. In terms of income, the majority of respondents earn between 7 million and 9 million rupiah per month (45%). Respondents were spread across different age groups, with the largest group being between 26 years and 31 years old (32%), followed by the 32–37 years old group (31%) (Table 2).
Descriptive statistics
The descriptive statistics of this study show that the mean scores for each research construct are relatively high, with mean scores ranging from 3.45 to 4.40. For CI, the means ranged from 3.96 to 4.36, indicating that respondents generally had a positive perception of CI. Local food was also highly rated, with a mean of 3.94 to 4.40, indicating that respondents had a positive perception of LF. Tourist Attitude had mean scores ranging from 3.91 to 4.40, with TA3 and TA4 having the highest scores. Tourist Satisfaction has a slightly lower mean than the other constructs, ranging from 3.45 to 3.75. Meanwhile, RI has a consistently high mean, ranging from 4.01 to 4.14. Overall, the negative skewness indicates that the data distribution is skewed to the right, and the kurtosis values are mostly close to zero, indicating that the data have a near-normal distribution. The relatively low standard deviation indicates that the variation in responses is relatively small, suggesting consistency in respondents’ responses (Table 3).
Validity and reliability test
The results of the validity and reliability tests show that all research constructs meet the required criteria. The factor loadings for all items are above 0.70, indicating that each item has a strong correlation with the measured construct. Cronbach’s alpha values for all constructs are above 0.85, indicating high internal reliability. The rho_A and Composite Reliability (CR) values are also above 0.85, reinforcing the finding that these constructs are internally consistent. The Average Variance Extracted (AVE) for all constructs is above 0.50, indicating that more than 50% of the variance of the construct can be explained by its indicators, indicating good convergent validity. Highest heterotrait monotrait (HTMT) ratios below 0.85 indicate that the constructs have good discriminant validity. Thus, these results indicate that the instruments used in this study are valid and reliable (Table 4).
| TABLE 4: Validity and reliability test result. |
Hypothesis testing
The findings provide robust support for all proposed hypotheses (Table 5 and Figure 2). Cultural image (CI) exhibits a significant and positive direct effect on revisit intention (RI) with a path coefficient of 0.21 (p = 0.001), thereby supporting H1. Similarly, local food (LF) significantly and positively influences RI, with a path coefficient of 0.23 (p = 0.000), confirming H2. Furthermore, tourist satisfaction (TS) serves as a significant mediating variable in both relationships: CI indirectly influences RI through TS with a path coefficient of 0.26 (p = 0.000), supporting H3, while LF indirectly impacts RI via TS with a path coefficient of 0.32 (p = 0.000), supporting H4. Additionally, tourist attitude (TA) significantly moderates these relationships. The interaction between CI and TA positively affects RI with a path coefficient of 0.25 (p = 0.000), supporting H5, while the interaction between LF and TA also positively influences RI with a path coefficient of 0.30 (p = 0.000), thereby supporting H6.
Discussion
This study aims to investigate the role of CI, LF, TS on RI by looking at the mediating role of TA. The findings showed that the path coefficient for the relationship between CI and RI was significant (β = 0.212, p < 0.001). This indicates that a positive perception of a destination’s CI significantly increases tourists’ intention to revisit. This result is consistent with research from Abbasi et al. (2021), Astor et al. (2024), Satrya et al. (2024) and Zhang et al.’s (2014), finding that a positive destination image increases tourists’ RI. Positive CIs such as the friendliness of local people, the diversity of festivals, and the authenticity of traditions can strengthen tourists’ desire to revisit. In addition, a well-maintained and clean CI can also have a significant impact on tourists’ intention to revisit (Kusumah, 2024; Lai et al., 2018). Respondents’ characteristics show a high appreciation of the cultural aspects of the destination, with high mean scores (3.96–4.36) for items related to CI. This positive perception likely fuelled their RI. It implies that tourism stakeholders should focus on preserving and promoting authentic cultural experiences to enhance destination attractiveness and revisit rates. Thus, the first hypothesis can be accepted.
Furthermore, this study also found that LF has a significant influence on RI. The statistical test results show a significant value. As stated by Pakhalov and Dosaykina (2021) and Zhu et al. (2024) that a pleasant experience with local cuisine positively influences the desire to revisit. This result is in line with previous research, which suggests that LF experienced by tourists has a significant positive impact on perceived destination image and RIs (Fei et al., 2020; Galati et al., 2023; Wani et al., 2024). High ratings for LF (mean scores ranged from 3.94 to 4.40) reflected respondents’ enjoyment and satisfaction with the culinary offerings, which strengthened RIs. Destination management teams should emphasise enhancing culinary tourism by maintaining food quality and promoting unique local dishes to create lasting impressions.
Furthermore, this study also found that TS mediates the relationship between CI and LF on RI. Based on statistical testing, TS plays an important role as a mediator in the relationship between CI and LF on RI. Positive CIs, such as the authenticity of local traditions and the beauty of local heritage, as well as satisfying culinary experiences, often increase TS. This finding supports the result from previous studies (Atsiz & Akova, 2021; Kusumah, 2024; Zeng, 2017). When tourists are satisfied with the cultural and culinary experiences they enjoy, they tend to feel more connected to the destination. As Zhu et al. (2024) suggested, satisfaction derived from cultural and culinary experiences is critical in shaping overall intention to revisit. Thus, its mediating role underscores its importance.
Finally, this study also found that tourists’ attitudes can moderate the relationship of CI and LF on RIs. As stated by Zhu et al. (2024) and Choe and Kim (2018) that positive attitudes towards the destination can strengthen the impact of cultural and culinary experiences on RIs. The high mean scores for tourists’ attitudes (3.91 to 4.40) indicate a generally favourable disposition towards the destination among respondents, which reinforces the effect of CIry and LF on their RI. The findings of this study suggest that, when tourists have positive and open attitudes towards CIry and LF, they are more likely to feel connected to the destination and have a greater desire to revisit. Conversely, negative or less open attitudes may reduce the positive impact of local cultural and food images, resulting in a reduced intention to revisit.
Conclusion, limitation and future research direction
This study aims to examine the effect of CI and LF on tourists’ intention to revisit with TS as a mediator and TA as a moderator. Based on research conducted in three major Indonesian cities (Bandung, Yogyakarta and Medan), it was found that CI and LF experience have a significant positive influence on tourists’ RI. Tourist satisfaction plays an important role in strengthening this relationship, while TAs can moderate the influence of CI and LF on RIs. The results of this study suggest that destinations with strong cultural heritage and attractive local cuisine can increase TS and encourage them to return.
The findings of this study have several implications for policymakers, destination organisers and cultural heritage tourism institutions. To enhance RIs, policymakers should prioritise the preservation of cultural heritage, ensuring that the unique cultural aspects of the destination are protected and promoted. Collaboration between local authorities and businesses can help create a seamless tourist experience by maintaining the authenticity of local culture and cuisine, while also improving infrastructure and accessibility. Destination organisers can leverage these findings by incorporating cultural heritage and LF into their marketing strategies, highlighting these elements as unique selling points to attract tourists. Moreover, cultural heritage tourism institutions should focus on fostering sustainable practices that benefit both the community and tourists. By investing in educational programmes, LF festivals and heritage tours, they can enhance the cultural experience, creating long-lasting positive impressions that lead to increased TS and repeat visits.
While this article presents interesting findings, there are some shortcomings. Firstly, the use of a sample limited to three major cities in Indonesia may not be representative of the wider cultural and culinary diversity in the country. Secondly, the sampling method using purposive sampling may result in bias in the selection of respondents. Thirdly, the measurement of variables based on Likert scales may not fully capture the complexity of tourists’ experiences. This study emphasises quantitative analysis without including qualitative insights that could provide a deeper understanding of tourists’ motivations and perceptions. Future research can further explore other factors that may influence the intention to revisit a destination, such as the use of destination attachment, tourist personality and eco-destination variables using a wider sample conducted in other countries. To fully understand the complex behaviour of tourists requires additional observations and analysis. Therefore, future research could consider longitudinal studies and comparisons between countries with diverse cultures. In addition, future research could utilise moderating roles such as income, motivation or perceived safety.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
W.S. was responsible for conceptualisation, methodology, formal analysis, investigation, writing the original draft, project administration, software and funding acquisition. M.M. was responsible for conceptualisation, visualisation, validation, data curation and resources. A.J. was responsible for conceptualisation, writing (review and editing) and supervision.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, W.S. upon reasonable request.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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