Abstract
Purpose: This study aims to examine the impact of inter-organisational information and communication technology on supply chain resilience and supply chain performance. The study emphasises the mediating role of inter-organisational trust and the moderating effect of organisational flexibility.
Design/methodology/approach: The study adopts a quantitative research design using a cross-sectional survey method. Data were collected from supply chain managers across various industries to ensure diversity and enable a comprehensive analysis. The relationships between inter-organisational information and communication technology, supply chain resilience and supply chain performance were examined, with inter-organisational trust as a mediator and organisational flexibility as a moderator.
Findings/results: The findings indicate that inter-organisational information and communication technology significantly enhances both supply chain performance and resilience. Inter-organisational trust was found to act as a complementary mediator in the relationships between inter-organisational information and communication technology, supply chain performance and supply chain resilience.
Practical implications: The results highlight the importance of managers embracing a comprehensive strategy that combines technology, trust and adaptability to improve supply chain results. By emphasising these factors, managers can develop robust and efficient supply chains that are equipped to handle the complexities of a fluctuating and uncertain business landscape.
Originality/value: This study suggests that managers should strategically implement technologies aligned with their organisation’s supply chain strategies. Additionally, managers should develop practical competencies to facilitate the effective and comprehensive utilisation of these technologies within the broader organisational context. This approach can enable organisations to build stronger supply chain networks, enhance resilience, and improve overall performance.
Keywords: supply chain performance; supply chain resilience; inter-organisational trust; inter-organisational information and communication technology; organisational flexibility.
Introduction
The increasing globalisation of markets has intensified the competitive landscape for organisations, pushing them to adopt advanced technologies, invest in resources and develop managerial capabilities to gain a competitive edge (Contractor, 2021). While globalisation offers numerous opportunities for growth and expansion, it also exposes organisations to significant risks, particularly within their supply chains (Gertz & Evers, 2020). Supply chain management has, therefore, become a vital component in determining organisational competitiveness, as it encompasses strategies that directly impact cost efficiencies, operational flexibility and resilience against disruptions (Agyabeng-Mensah et al., 2020).
Recent trends indicate an increase in supply chain disruptions caused by natural disasters, geopolitical tensions, pandemics and technological failures. These disruptions can have a cascading effect, leading to significant operational challenges and financial losses (Alkhudary et al., 2022; Bygballe et al., 2023). Natural hazards, such as hurricanes, tsunamis and earthquakes, alongside human-induced events like terrorism, exacerbate the unpredictability of global supply chains (Li et al., 2022). Furthermore, changes in supply chain configurations, including tighter coupling, increased complexity, reduced inventory levels and geographical dispersion, have amplified vulnerabilities despite achieving cost efficiencies (Hacardiaux et al., 2022). These vulnerabilities underscore the urgent need for organisations to develop resilient supply chains that can withstand and recover from disruptions. In response, organisations such as Sasol, Shoprite, Pick n Pay, Eskom and Woolworths in South Africa are collaborating with their supply chain partners to enhance resilience and mitigate risks effectively.
Supply chain resilience has garnered significant attention within the field of operations management because of its multidimensional and multifunctional nature. Resilience, originally rooted in social psychology, refers to an organisation’s ability to adapt, recover and maintain stability in the face of disruptions (Gupta et al., 2022). In the context of supply chains, Brandon-Jones et al. (2014, p. 59) define resilience as ‘the characteristic of a supply chain that allows it to restore its regular operational performance within a reasonable timeframe after the removal or cessation of disruptive factors’. Given the complexities and uncertainties in contemporary supply chain environments, resilience is no longer optional but a necessity.
The literature on supply chain disruptions has primarily focused on identifying the root causes, evaluating their impacts and exploring mitigation strategies. Studies have examined the occurrence of supply chain disruptions (Alkhudary et al., 2022; Bygballe et al., 2023), the factors contributing to these disruptions (Shekarian & Mellat Parast, 2021), their effects on organisational performance (Alaaraj et al., 2018) and the role of risk management strategies in mitigating their impact (Kundu et al., 2022). Baah et al. (2022) and Badraoui et al. (2020) highlighted the importance of information sharing and supply chain visibility in enhancing resilience. However, there remains limited exploration into how inter-organisational information and communication technology can be leveraged to strengthen supply chain resilience and performance, particularly in the aftermath of disruptions (Alkhudary et al., 2022; Bygballe et al., 2023).
Inter-organisational information and communication technology refers to the systems and tools that facilitate seamless communication, information sharing and data processing across supply chain partners. These technologies enable organisations to enhance visibility, optimise decision-making and foster collaboration with suppliers, customers and other stakeholders (Bouazzaoui et al., 2020). By redefining organisational boundaries and facilitating real-time data exchange, inter-organisational information and communication technology can mitigate uncertainties and enhance operational efficiencies (Patil et al., 2023). Additionally, these technologies support critical functions such as electronic transactions, supply chain monitoring and resource allocation, thereby contributing to improved supply chain performance (Deepu & Ravi, 2021). However, the successful adoption and utilisation of inter-organisational information and communication technology require organisations to develop supporting mechanisms, including trust and flexibility.
Trust plays a pivotal role in fostering harmonious inter-organisational relationships, enabling collaboration and mitigating opportunistic behaviours (Choi & Siqin, 2022). Defined as the willingness to rely on the actions and decisions of others (Deferne et al., 2022), trust forms the foundation of effective partnerships and facilitates the exchange of information, resources and expertise. Relational exchange theory emphasises the significance of trust, commitment and cooperation in achieving competitiveness and strengthening supply chain relationships (Safari & Albaum, 2019). Inter-organisational trust has been identified as a mediator in enhancing supply chain resilience and performance, as it fosters transparency, reduces transaction costs and promotes long-term collaboration (Zou et al., 2023).
Another critical enabler of supply chain resilience and performance is organisational flexibility, defined as the ability to adapt to dynamic and unpredictable environments (Chen & Su, 2022). Organisational flexibility enhances decision-making capabilities, supports innovative approaches and facilitates rapid responses to disruptions (Darvishmotevali et al., 2021). By integrating organisational flexibility with inter-organisational information and communication technology, organisations can better leverage data-driven insights to address uncertainties and improve operational performance.
This study aims to address the research gap by examining the interplay between inter-organisational information and communication technology, trust and flexibility in enhancing supply chain resilience and performance. By leveraging organisational information processing theory and relational exchange theory, the study investigates the mechanisms through which inter-organisational information and communication technology influences resilience and performance outcomes. Furthermore, the study explores the mediating role of inter-organisational trust and the moderating effect of organisational flexibility, providing valuable insights for academics and practitioners in the field of supply chain management.
Theoretical framework and hypotheses
Organisational information processing theory
Organisational information processing theory, introduced by Galbraith (1977), explores how organisations process information to address uncertainty and achieve effective decision-making. The theory posits that organisations face varying levels of uncertainty depending on their operational environments, and the ability to process information efficiently determines their capacity to manage this uncertainty. Organisational information processing theory distinguishes between two primary approaches to managing uncertainty: reducing the need for information through mechanistic methods, such as standardisation and formalisation, or increasing the capacity to process information through advanced systems and collaborative practices (Zhu et al., 2018). At its core, the theory emphasises the importance of organisational structures, technological tools and communication mechanisms in facilitating the flow of information across different levels of an organisation, enabling timely and informed decisions.
In the context of this study, organisational information processing theory provides a valuable framework for understanding the role of inter-organisational information and communication technology in managing supply chain complexity and uncertainty. As supply chains become more dynamic and interconnected, the volume and complexity of data exchanged between supply chain partners increase significantly. By adopting inter-organisational information and communication technology, organisations can enhance their information processing capabilities, enabling real-time data exchange, improved visibility and effective collaboration with supply chain partners (Patil et al., 2023). This study leverages organisational information processing theory to examine how the efficient management of information through technology can enhance supply chain resilience and performance, particularly in environments characterised by frequent disruptions and uncertainties. It also highlights the importance of organisational flexibility as a complementary factor that enhances the effectiveness of information processing systems in achieving resilience and performance objectives.
Relational exchange theory
Relational exchange theory focuses on the importance of building and maintaining long-term, trust-based relationships between organisations to achieve competitive advantages and mutual benefits. The theory asserts that successful inter-organisational relationships are not merely transactional but rely on relational norms, such as trust, commitment, cooperation and mutual dependency, which foster collaboration and mitigate opportunistic behaviours (Safari & Albaum, 2019). Unlike purely transactional exchanges, relational exchange theory considers the overall quality of the partnership, placing emphasis on the establishment of goodwill and shared goals to ensure sustainable outcomes (Lambe et al., 2001). By encouraging self-regulation and collaboration, the theory highlights the role of trust as a mechanism for reducing transaction costs, facilitating knowledge sharing and strengthening organisational partnerships.
In this study, relational exchange theory serves as a lens to explore how inter-organisational trust mediates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain outcomes. Trust, as a cornerstone of relational exchange theory, is critical in enabling organisations to collaborate effectively and share information seamlessly, particularly in supply chain networks characterised by high interdependence and uncertainty (Deferne et al., 2022). By fostering relational interactions, inter-organisational information and communication technology can promote positive expectations among supply chain partners, thereby reducing the risks of opportunistic behaviour and enhancing cooperation (Patil et al., 2023). This study leverages relational exchange theory to examine how trust-based mechanisms facilitate the adoption and utilisation of technology to improve supply chain resilience and performance, while also highlighting the moderating role of organisational flexibility in these relationships (Figure 1).
Inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain performance
The integration of inter-organisational information and communication technology has revolutionised how supply chains operate by enabling seamless communication, real-time data sharing and enhanced collaboration between supply chain partners. Inter-organisational information and communication technology facilitates the exchange of information, automates processes and provides visibility across supply chain networks, contributing to operational efficiency and decision-making accuracy (Safari & Albaum, 2019). These capabilities are particularly critical in enhancing supply chain performance, which encompasses key metrics such as cost efficiency, delivery reliability and customer satisfaction (Bowersox et al., 2000). By providing a unified platform for data integration and collaboration, inter-organisational information and communication technology can significantly improve the coordination of activities across different supply chain tiers, leading to optimised outcomes.
Empirical studies support the positive impact of inter-organisational information and communication technology on supply chain performance. For instance, Zeng and Lu (2021) demonstrated that organisations with advanced inter-organisational information systems experienced significant improvements in delivery lead times, inventory management and customer responsiveness. Similarly, Deepu and Ravi (2021) highlighted that the adoption of digital technologies in supply chains enables efficient coordination of components and products, thereby improving the flow of goods and services. These studies underscore the role of inter-organisational information and communication technology as an enabler of enhanced supply chain performance through its ability to streamline processes and reduce inefficiencies.
Another critical aspect of inter-organisational information and communication technology is its ability to provide real-time visibility across the supply chain. Real-time visibility allows organisations to monitor inventory levels, track shipments and anticipate potential disruptions, enabling proactive decision-making and enhanced performance outcomes (Patil et al., 2023). For example, Daghar et al. (2021) identified that organisations leveraging inter-organisational information and communication technology to enhance supply chain visibility experienced reduced operational disruptions and improved overall performance. By providing access to timely and accurate information, these technologies help supply chain partners synchronise activities and respond quickly to market changes, thereby fostering superior performance.
The positive relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain performance can also be attributed to its ability to foster collaboration and trust among supply chain partners. As Safari and Albaum (2019) noted, inter-organisational information and communication technology creates an environment conducive to sharing knowledge and resources, which enhances operational efficiencies and competitive advantages. Furthermore, Bao and Bardhan (2022); Bouazzaoui et al. (2020) demonstrated that information sharing facilitated by inter-organisational information and communication technology improves supply chain performance by promoting joint problem-solving and coordination among partners. In light of these findings, it can be inferred that inter-organisational information and communication technology plays a pivotal role in enhancing supply chain performance. This leads to the hypothesis:
H1: There is a significant positive relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain performance.
Inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain resilience
Inter-organisational information and communication technology has emerged as a critical enabler of supply chain resilience by facilitating information sharing, improving visibility and enhancing collaborative capabilities among supply chain partners. In the face of increasing disruptions caused by natural disasters, geopolitical tensions and market uncertainties, organisations must adopt systems that support proactive and reactive responses to supply chain challenges (Alkhudary et al., 2022; Bygballe et al., 2023). By leveraging inter-organisational information and communication technology, organisations can monitor real-time operations, anticipate disruptions and develop contingency plans, thus strengthening their ability to recover and maintain performance during crises.
Empirical evidence highlights the positive role of inter-organisational information and communication technology in enhancing supply chain resilience. Gupta et al. (2023) found that organisations with access to advanced inter-organisational information and communication technology were better able to establish supply chain visibility, a fundamental capability for mitigating the impact of disruptions. Enhanced visibility allows organisations to identify vulnerabilities, assess risks and coordinate responses effectively across supply chain networks. This capacity to detect and address disruptions in a timely manner significantly contributes to overall resilience.
Moreover, inter-organisational information and communication technology facilitates collaboration and trust (Dehghanpouri et al., 2020), which are essential for building resilient supply chains. Trust fosters information sharing and cooperation among supply chain partners, enabling the development of coordinated strategies for managing risks and uncertainties (Safari & Albaum, 2019). For instance, Moshood et al. (2021) emphasised that the integration of inter-organisational systems enables partners to share critical data during disruptions, such as inventory availability, production schedules and transportation capacities, to mitigate the adverse effects of supply chain disturbances. This ability to share and utilise information in real-time is crucial for enhancing resilience.
Inter-organisational information and communication technology also supports the efficient allocation of resources during disruptions (He et al., 2022). Deepu and Ravi (2021) highlighted how such technologies allow organisations to optimise their production and distribution networks by using real-time data to reallocate resources and adjust operations dynamically. This adaptability ensures continuity in supply chain activities, even under uncertain conditions. Furthermore, research by Zeng and Lu (2021) demonstrated that organisations employing inter-organisational information and communication technology exhibited higher levels of supply chain agility and responsiveness, enabling them to recover quickly from disruptions.
By enhancing resilience, inter-organisational information and communication technology also strengthens the supply chain’s ability to minimise the long-term impacts of disruptions. Gupta et al. (2022) noted that organisations leveraging these technologies could better manage risk and uncertainty, resulting in improved stability and continuity of operations. Such resilience not only mitigates financial losses but also helps maintain customer trust and satisfaction, ensuring competitive advantages in volatile markets. Based on these empirical insights, inter-organisational information and communication technology is a vital tool for building supply chain resilience. This leads to the hypothesis:
H2: There is a significant positive relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain resilience.
Mediating role of inter-organisational trust
Inter-organisational trust plays a pivotal role in enhancing the effectiveness of supply chain partnerships by fostering collaboration, reducing uncertainties and enabling seamless information exchange. Trust, defined as the willingness to rely on the actions and decisions of others, is a critical element in establishing strong inter-organisational relationships (Deferne et al., 2022). By promoting transparency and reducing the risks of opportunistic behaviour, trust facilitates the exchange of knowledge, resources and capabilities among supply chain partners. Relational exchange theory underscores the importance of trust as a mediator in achieving successful organisational outcomes, particularly in dynamic and uncertain environments (Safari & Albaum, 2019).
Empirical evidence supports the role of inter-organisational trust in mediating the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain outcomes. Hohenstein (2022) emphasised that trust enables organisations to fully utilise the potential of inter-organisational information and communication technology by fostering open communication and mutual reliance among partners. When trust exists, partners are more likely to share critical data and collaborate on strategies, thereby enhancing both supply chain resilience and performance (Mandal & Dubey, 2021; Oláh et al., 2021). This trust-driven collaboration ensures that information obtained through inter-organisational information and communication technology is effectively applied to address supply chain challenges.
Additionally, inter-organisational trust reduces transaction costs by minimising the need for extensive contractual safeguards and monitoring mechanisms. Paula et al. (2020) demonstrated that trust within supply chain networks lowers the costs associated with enforcing agreements, allowing resources to be allocated more efficiently. This cost-saving aspect of trust enhances the overall effectiveness of inter-organisational information and communication technology, as partners can focus on strategic initiatives rather than operational disputes. Furthermore, trust strengthens the relationship between supply chain partners, promoting long-term cooperation and joint problem-solving (Zou et al., 2023).
Inter-organisational trust also contributes to supply chain resilience by enabling rapid and coordinated responses to disruptions. Pfohl (2023) found that higher levels of trust in buyer-supplier relationships enhance resilience by fostering collaborative efforts during crises. Trust ensures that supply chain partners work together to mitigate disruptions, leveraging the information provided by inter-organisational information and communication technology to identify vulnerabilities and implement solutions. For instance, Fayezi and Ghaderi (2022) noted that trust supports the establishment of reliable networks, which are essential for maintaining operational stability and recovering quickly from supply chain interruptions.
The mediating role of inter-organisational trust is further evident in its ability to amplify the positive effects of inter-organisational information and communication technology on supply chain performance. Safari and Albaum (2019) highlighted that trust-driven relationships facilitate joint decision-making and the sharing of innovative practices, enabling organisations to optimise supply chain processes and improve efficiency. These findings suggest that the benefits of inter-organisational information and communication technology are maximised when trust exists, as it creates an environment conducive to collaboration and innovation.
In summary, inter-organisational trust mediates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain outcomes by fostering collaboration, reducing transaction costs and enabling effective use of shared information. This leads to the following hypotheses:
H3: There is a significant positive relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and inter-organisational trust.
H4a: Inter-organisational trust mediates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain performance.
H4b: Inter-organisational trust mediates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain resilience.
Moderating role of organisational flexibility
Organisational flexibility refers to the ability of an organisation to adapt quickly and efficiently to dynamic and unpredictable environments. This capability enables organisations to reconfigure resources, modify processes and make decisions that align with changing circumstances (Shukor et al., 2021). Organisational flexibility is particularly vital in supply chain management, where disruptions and uncertainties are common (Gong et al., 2020). By fostering agility and responsiveness, flexibility allows organisations to address disruptions effectively, maintain operational continuity and enhance overall performance (Darvishmotevali et al., 2021).
Organisational flexibility is considered a critical moderator in the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain outcomes. While inter-organisational information and communication technology facilitates the acquisition and sharing of data across supply chain partners, the ability to act on this information depends largely on an organisation’s flexibility (Yamin et al., 2024). For instance, organisations with high flexibility can leverage insights from inter-organisational information and communication technology to reallocate resources, optimise operations and implement contingency plans during disruptions (Deepu & Ravi, 2021). Conversely, organisations with low flexibility may struggle to utilise this information effectively, limiting the potential benefits of the technology.
Empirical evidence supports the moderating role of organisational flexibility in enhancing the impact of inter-organisational information and communication technology. Rezaei et al. (2022) found that organisations with high levels of flexibility were better able to integrate information from inter-organisational systems into their decision-making processes, resulting in improved supply chain performance. Similarly, Varma et al. (2024) emphasised that flexibility enhances an organisation’s ability to adapt to supply chain disruptions by enabling swift responses to unforeseen challenges. This adaptability amplifies the benefits of inter-organisational information and communication technology, allowing organisations to maintain resilience and achieve better performance outcomes.
In the context of supply chain resilience, organisational flexibility strengthens the link between inter-organisational information and communication technology and the ability to recover from disruptions. Ramos et al. (2023) highlighted that flexibility enables organisations to respond dynamically to changing conditions, such as fluctuating demand or supply shortages, by leveraging real-time data provided by inter-organisational information and communication technology. This ability to adapt quickly and reconfigure operations ensures that organisations can minimise the impact of disruptions and maintain stability in their supply chain networks (Nayal et al., 2022).
Moreover, organisational flexibility promotes innovation and collaboration within supply chain partnerships (Ajayi & Udeh, 2024). Flexible organisations are more likely to engage in cooperative activities, share knowledge and implement innovative solutions, further enhancing the effectiveness of inter-organisational information and communication technology (Fu, 2022). For example, Dubey et al. (2021) noted that flexible organisations are better equipped to integrate lateral and vertical relationships into their supply chain processes, creating a cohesive network that maximises the benefits of information and communication technology.
The moderating role of organisational flexibility also extends to supply chain performance. Studies by Zeng and Lu (2021) demonstrate that flexible organisations can translate the information provided by inter-organisational information and communication technology into actionable strategies, resulting in higher efficiency, reduced costs and improved customer satisfaction. These findings suggest that the interaction between inter-organisational information and communication technology and organisational flexibility creates a synergistic effect, driving superior supply chain performance.
In conclusion, organisational flexibility enhances the effectiveness of inter-organisational information and communication technology in achieving supply chain resilience and performance. By enabling organisations to adapt to changing conditions, optimise resource allocation and foster innovation, flexibility ensures that the potential of information and communication technology is fully realised. This leads to the following hypotheses:
H5a: Organisational flexibility moderates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain performance.
H5b: Organisational flexibility moderates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain resilience.
Research methodology
Participants and procedures
This study focuses on supply chain managers from Chinese organisations across diverse industries, including manufacturing, retail, wholesale and construction, to ensure a broad representation of perspectives and experiences. These participants were selected based on their involvement in decision-making processes and their understanding of supply chain operations, particularly in the context of managing disruptions and leveraging inter-organisational information and communication technology (Baah et al., 2022).
A quantitative research approach was adopted, employing a cross-sectional survey design to gather primary data. The survey strategy was selected as it enables the collection of a large volume of data efficiently. Purposive sampling was used to target managers and senior executives with substantial experience in supply chain operations and inter-organisational relationships. This sampling technique ensured the inclusion of key informants who could provide valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities associated with supply chain resilience, performance and the adoption of technology.
Initial screening identified relevant organisations that had recently faced supply chain disruptions. Multiple professional and institutional networks were utilised to establish contact with these organisations. Potential respondents were approached through formal invitations, and detailed information about the study’s purpose and confidentiality measures was provided to encourage participation. Respondents were selected based on their roles in overseeing supply chain operations and their ability to assess inter-organisational interactions and environmental uncertainties.
The survey instrument was distributed to 400 participants, of which 311 valid responses were obtained, representing a response rate of 78%. The respondents had an average of 11 years of experience in managerial roles and 5.5 years in the supply chain domain. The typical organisation represented in the study had an average of 599 employees and a revenue of approximately $5.1 million. The participants represented various industries, including construction (32%), manufacturing (39%), retail (14%) and wholesale (15%), ensuring diversity in the sample.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the institutional review board of De La Sakke University-Dasmarinas (122 790). Written consent was obtained from all the participants and the data were kept confidential. The current study was reviewed and approved by the institutional review board of the respective institution. All experiments were performed in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations described in the Declaration of Helsinki. This rigorous data collection process ensured the reliability and validity of the study’s findings, providing a robust basis for analysing the relationships between inter-organisational information and communication technology, trust, flexibility and supply chain outcomes.
Research instruments
The questionnaire used in this study was developed by adapting established research instruments relevant to inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain management. To measure inter-organisational information and communication technology, the three-item scale developed by Zhang et al. (2020) was employed, with a sample item such as ‘having an internet connection with the key buyer’. Inter-organisational trust was assessed using the three-item research instrument designed by Hibbard et al. (2001), which included items like ‘relying on the supplier to keep promises they made to us’. Supply chain performance was measured using the 13-item scale introduced by Bowersox et al. (2000), covering topics such as ‘route planning optimisation’. Supply chain resilience was evaluated using a modified version of the four-item research instrument created by Brandon-Jones et al. (2014), with an example item being: ‘our organisation can easily restore material flow’. Finally, organisational flexibility was measured using the five-item scale proposed by Dubey et al. (2021). These carefully adapted instruments ensured the validity and reliability of the constructs used in the study.
Results
Multicollinearity assessment
Table 1 presents the results of the collinearity assessment for the variables in the study, including inter-organisational information and communication technology, inter-organisational trust, organisational flexibility, supply chain resilience and supply chain performance. The variance inflation factor (VIF) values, which are used to detect multicollinearity, all fall below the threshold of 3.3, indicating the absence of significant multicollinearity issues (Hair et al., 2018). The VIF values for inter-organisational information and communication technology range from 1.37 to 2.19, suggesting no collinearity concerns. Similarly, the VIF values for inter-organisational trust range from 0.56 to 1.54, confirming the absence of multicollinearity. Organisational flexibility also exhibits acceptable VIF values, ranging from 0.87 to 2.32. These results indicate that the predictor variables in the model do not have strong correlations with each other, ensuring the reliability of the analysis.
Assessment of the measurement model
Table 2 presents the psychometric properties and convergent validity of the constructs measured in the study, including inter-organisational information and communication technology, inter-organisational trust, supply chain resilience, supply chain performance and organisational flexibility. The composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha values for all constructs exceed the recommended threshold of 0.7, indicating strong internal consistency and reliability. The average variance extracted (AVE) values for all constructs are above the threshold of 0.5, demonstrating adequate convergent validity. The loadings for individual items across all constructs are above 0.7, reflecting satisfactory item reliability. For inter-organisational information and communication technology, the composite reliability and Cronbach’s alpha are 0.909 and 0.887, with an AVE of 0.676. Inter-organisational trust exhibits a composite reliability of 0.881, a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.8415 and an AVE of 0.654. Supply chain resilience has strong psychometric properties, with a composite reliability of 0.900, a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.872 and an AVE of 0.733. Supply chain performance demonstrates reliability with a composite reliability of 0.849, a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.809 and an AVE of 0.622. Organisational flexibility achieves a composite reliability of 0.888, a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.848 and an AVE of 0.655. These results confirm the reliability and validity of the measurement scales used in this study.
| TABLE 2: Psychometric properties and convergent validity. |
Table 3 presents the discriminant validity assessment using the heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) ratio. The HTMT values for all constructs are below the recommended threshold of 0.85, indicating satisfactory discriminant validity (Henseler et al., 2009, 2015). The HTMT ratio between inter-organisational information and communication technology and inter-organisational trust is 0.775, while the ratio between inter-organisational information and communication technology and organisational flexibility is 0.754. The relationship between inter-organisational trust and organisational flexibility shows a value of 0.578. For supply chain resilience, the HTMT values with inter-organisational information and communication technology, inter-organisational trust and organisational flexibility are 0.587, 0.689 and 0.801, respectively. Finally, the HTMT ratios between supply chain performance and the other constructs – inter-organisational information and communication technology, inter-organisational trust, organisational flexibility and supply chain resilience are 0.574, 0.619, 0.773 and 0.727, respectively. These results confirm that the constructs are distinct from one another, satisfying the discriminant validity requirements for this study.
| TABLE 3: Discriminant validity (heterotrait-monotrait) ratio. |
Assessment of the structural model
Table 4 provides the R2 values for the latent variables, indicating the proportion of variance explained by the predictor variables in the structural model. The R2 value for inter-organisational trust is 0.518, which reflects a moderate level of variance explained by its predictors. Similarly, the R2 value for supply chain resilience is 0.539, also classified as moderate, suggesting that the model adequately explains a substantial portion of the variance in supply chain resilience. For supply chain performance, the R2 value is 0.517, indicating moderate explanatory power. These results confirm that the predictors included in the model account for a significant, though not overwhelming, portion of the variance in the latent variables, reflecting a well-constructed and robust structural model.
| TABLE 4: R2 values for latent variables. |
Table 5 summarises the results of the partial least square analysis, providing insights into the hypothesised relationships in the study. The results show that all hypotheses are supported with significant path coefficients. H1, which posits a positive relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain performance, is supported with an estimate of 0.340, a t-value of 8.355 and a p-value of 0.000. H2, addressing the impact of inter-organisational information and communication technology on supply chain resilience, is also supported with an estimate of 0.369, a t-value of 9.422 and a p-value of 0.000. H3, which examines the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and inter-organisational trust, is supported with an estimate of 0.278, a t-value of 3.319 and a p-value of 0.002.
| TABLE 5: Results of partial least square analysis. |
The mediation H4a and H4b are confirmed, showing that inter-organisational trust significantly mediates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain performance (estimate = 0.314, t-value = 10.813, p-value = 0.000) and between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain resilience (estimate = 0.322, t-value = 7.802, p-value = 0.000). The moderating role of organisational flexibility is also supported. Hypothesis 5a shows a significant interaction effect of inter-organisational information and communication technology and organisational flexibility on supply chain performance (estimate = 0.427, t-value = 2.110, p-value = 0.006). Similarly, H5b confirms the moderating effect of organisational flexibility on the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain resilience (estimate = 0.332, t-value = 9.742, p-value = 0.000) (Figure 2 and Figure 3). These results validate the proposed relationships and demonstrate the robustness of the structural model in explaining the dynamics of supply chain resilience and performance.
Discussion
This study provides valuable insights into the relationships between inter-organisational information and communication technology, supply chain performance and supply chain resilience. The findings confirm that inter-organisational information and communication technology significantly enhances both supply chain performance and resilience, validating its role as a key enabler of effective supply chain management. This outcome aligns with prior research, which highlights the critical role of technology in enabling seamless communication, improving decision-making and fostering collaboration across supply chain networks (Safari & Albaum, 2019; Zeng & Lu, 2021).
The study further reveals that inter-organisational trust mediates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and both supply chain performance and resilience. This mediating role underscores the importance of trust in enabling organisations to fully utilise the potential of inter-organisational information and communication technology. Trust fosters transparency, reduces transaction costs and promotes cooperative behaviour, all of which are crucial for managing disruptions and improving supply chain outcomes (Zou et al., 2023). These findings support relational exchange theory, which posits that trust, commitment and cooperation are fundamental to achieving competitive advantages in inter-organisational relationships (Safari & Albaum, 2019).
Additionally, organisational flexibility moderates the relationship between inter-organisational information and communication technology and supply chain outcomes, amplifying the positive effects of technology on performance and resilience. This result highlights the importance of flexibility as a complementary capability that enables organisations to adapt to dynamic and uncertain environments. Flexible organisations are better equipped to leverage the insights provided by inter-organisational information and communication technology, allowing them to respond swiftly to disruptions, optimise resource allocation and maintain operational stability (Darvishmotevali et al., 2021; Rezaei et al., 2022).
From a theoretical perspective, this study extends the organisational information processing theory by demonstrating that inter-organisational information and communication technology enhances supply chain outcomes by improving information processing capabilities. The study highlights that effective utilisation of information is critical for managing uncertainty and achieving resilience in complex supply chain networks (Galbraith, 1977; Zhu et al., 2018). Furthermore, the study enriches relational exchange theory by establishing the mediating role of trust in leveraging the benefits of technology to achieve supply chain goals. This integration of theories provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the interplay between technology, trust and flexibility in supply chain management.
This research also contributes to the growing body of literature on supply chain resilience by identifying inter-organisational trust and organisational flexibility as critical enablers of resilience. The findings highlight that trust-driven relationships and adaptive organisational structures are essential for mitigating the impact of disruptions and ensuring the continuity of supply chain operations (Gupta et al., 2022). By examining these relationships in the context of inter-organisational information and communication technology, this study provides a nuanced understanding of how organisations can leverage technology to build resilient and high-performing supply chains.
In summary, this study advances the theoretical understanding of supply chain management by integrating organisational information processing theory and relational exchange theory to explain the mechanisms through which inter-organisational information and communication technology influences supply chain performance and resilience. The findings emphasise the importance of trust and flexibility as complementary factors that enable organisations to optimise the benefits of technology. This theoretical contribution not only enriches existing literature but also provides a robust framework for future research in this domain.
Managerial implications
The findings of this study offer several actionable insights for managers seeking to enhance supply chain performance and resilience through the effective use of inter-organisational information and communication technology. Firstly, managers should prioritise the strategic implementation of inter-organisational information and communication technology systems to improve communication, data sharing and visibility across supply chain networks. These technologies enable real-time decision-making and operational efficiency, particularly in managing disruptions. Organisations that fail to invest in such systems may find themselves at a competitive disadvantage, unable to respond effectively to uncertainties.
Secondly, this study highlights the critical role of inter-organisational trust in enhancing the effectiveness of technology. Managers should focus on building and maintaining trust-based relationships with supply chain partners by fostering transparency, honouring commitments and encouraging open communication. Trust not only reduces transaction costs but also facilitates collaboration and information sharing, which are vital for mitigating disruptions and improving supply chain outcomes. Initiatives such as joint training sessions, shared goals and collaborative decision-making can help strengthen trust among partners.
Thirdly, organisational flexibility emerges as a key factor in amplifying the benefits of inter-organisational information and communication technology. Managers should develop flexible organisational structures and processes that allow for rapid adaptation to changing conditions. This could involve creating cross-functional teams, decentralising decision-making and implementing agile supply chain strategies. Flexible organisations are better equipped to leverage data-driven insights provided by technology, enabling them to respond swiftly to disruptions, optimise resource allocation and maintain operational stability.
Additionally, managers must invest in building the capabilities needed to maximise the utilisation of inter-organisational information and communication technology. This includes training employees to use technological tools effectively, aligning technological investments with supply chain strategies and ensuring the integration of systems across organisational boundaries. Such initiatives will enable organisations to fully realise the potential of technology in improving supply chain performance and resilience.
Fourthly, managers should adopt a proactive approach to risk management by leveraging inter-organisational information and communication technology to anticipate potential disruptions and develop contingency plans. The ability to detect vulnerabilities and respond to risks in a timely manner is essential for maintaining resilience and ensuring business continuity. Organisations that incorporate these practices into their supply chain strategies are more likely to achieve sustainable competitive advantages in an increasingly uncertain and complex global market.
In summary, the findings underscore the need for managers to adopt a holistic approach that integrates technology, trust and flexibility to enhance supply chain outcomes. By focusing on these elements, managers can build resilient and high-performing supply chains capable of navigating the challenges of a dynamic and uncertain business environment.
Limitations and future studies
This study, while providing valuable insights, has several limitations that warrant attention. The cross-sectional survey design restricts the ability to infer causality, and future studies could adopt longitudinal approaches to capture the dynamic interactions among variables over time. Additionally, the focus on organisations in China limits the generalisability of the findings, suggesting the need for comparative studies across different regions and industries. Self-reported data may introduce bias, which future research could address by incorporating objective metrics or mixed-methods approaches. Furthermore, this study examines inter-organisational information and communication technology as a single construct without exploring specific dimensions, such as artificial intelligence or blockchain, which future studies could investigate. Finally, other potential mediators or moderators, such as organisational culture or advanced analytics, could be explored to provide a more comprehensive understanding of factors influencing supply chain resilience and performance.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this study highlights the critical role of inter-organisational information and communication technology in enhancing supply chain resilience and performance, demonstrating that its effectiveness is significantly influenced by inter-organisational trust and organisational flexibility. By leveraging relational exchange theory and organisational information processing theory, the research provides a comprehensive understanding of how technology, trust and flexibility interact to optimise supply chain outcomes. The findings emphasise the need for organisations to invest in robust technological systems, foster trust-based partnerships and develop adaptive capabilities to navigate disruptions and uncertainties effectively. These insights offer valuable theoretical and managerial implications, providing a foundation for future research and practical strategies to build resilient and high-performing supply chains.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The author declares that no financial or personal relationships inappropriately influenced the writing of this article.
Author’s contributions
X.C. is the sole author of this research article.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The author confirms that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the article.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated agency of the author.
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