An executive coach participating in this study commented, ‘If you cannot write it, draw it’. This aptly supports the researchers’ contemplation of the role of art in coaching and aligns with the famous adage, ‘A picture paints a thousand words’. These statements suggest that the visual arts can capture a narrative that is very personal and depict a person’s non-verbalised inner world. The question can then be raised as to whether the picture of the individual’s inner world can lead them to greater self-awareness and insights and, in turn, lead to change and transformation.

Sustainable personal transformation is a key outcome for clients in the coaching relationship, and critical reflection has been identified as being one of the key themes of all transformative learning processes (Grant, 2003; Jackson, 2004). Moreover, reflection forms the second step of Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning cycle and the fourth step in Dewey’s (1933) reflective learning cycle. Thus, techniques and tools that enhance critical reflection would be of interest to the coaching profession, their clients and organisations that seek to benefit from coaching interventions.

Reflection is a construct that is foundational to adult learning and transformative learning theory and is generally regarded as the prerequisite to all adult learning, development and transformation (Arlin, 1975; Mezirow, 1990a; Rodgers, 2002). Mezirow (1990) divided human behaviour into two broad levels. The first is the superficial level of action and involves performing habits, using existing knowledge uncritically and spontaneously reacting to situations emotionally. Mezirow (1990) defined these as non-reflective actions that do not lead to change and personal development. The second level of intentional, reflective action does lead to individual transformation. This category involves an individual asking what is being perceived by them personally, how the perception is formed and why those perceptions even exist (Mezirow, 1990). This level of questioning leads an individual to question their foundational meaning framework, their assumptions and their values.

Reflective action does not come automatically to an individual, and it involves an intentional questioning of their cognitive and affective reactions to felt experiences (Mezirow, 1990; Taylor, 2017). Research into adult learning theory has revealed that some attributes, such as emotional engagement, increased self-awareness, insights, changed meaning perspectives, learning and transformation, are typically associated with reflection (Mezirow, 1990, 2000; Rodgers, 2002).

The literature describing arts-based interventions in art therapy, business organisations, healthcare and coaching reveals similar (reflective) attributes as described in adult learning theory. In the various contexts where the arts are used as interventions, literature observes outcomes such as emotional engagement, improved self-expression, heightened self-awareness, deeper insights, changed perspectives and improved communication (Malchiodi, 2019; Ramos-Volz, 2018; Sheather, 2017).

The key common denominators that seem to link the associated attributes of adult learning theory and the beneficial outcomes of using arts-based methods all point to reflective thinking. Critical reflection is a more profound, advanced and demanding form of reflection because it can transform our meaning schemes and perspectives (Mezirow, 1990). According to Hyde (2021):

The links between the use of arts-based methods and critical reflection have not been thoroughly researched and opportunities remain to enhance insights into the nature of the benefits of using the arts in organisational learning contexts (Chemi & Du, 2018).

The aim of this study was to explore the use of the arts in coaching and critical reflection in clients and the beneficial outcomes as alluded to in scientific and practitioner literature. A deeper understanding of the processes involved in arts-based coaching and the beneficial outcomes would serve to enrich the coaching profession with new tools and businesses with a case to apply such tools for organisational development and sustainability. According to SAGE Encyclopedia (2014), one such reflection tool is Kolb’s model, which:

The article is structured as follows: Firstly, it focuses on theory related to reflection and its role in adult learning and development, using coaching. Secondly, the article describes the primary qualitative research method. Thirdly, the findings reveal the dominant themes associated with arts-based coaching and the drivers of critical reflection. Finally, conclusions are drawn that provide management with a motivation to consider arts-based coaching and facilitation for implementation in organisations.

This study explored the broader construct of reflection as defined by adult learning theory in literature and sought to distil reflection into a summative definition with key attributes. Furthermore, the study explored literature to understand the arts-based methods used by coaches and the observed outcomes. The theoretical perspectives confirmed the common reflection-based attributes that both adult learning theory and the use of arts-based methods seem to share.

The focus of this article is to discuss the findings of primary qualitative research conducted amongst coaches that used the arts as a tool in their respective genres of coaching. The intention was to empirically analyse coaches’ first-hand experiences with arts-based coaching and to confirm or augment the prior theoretical perspectives researched. Given the focus on the personal, subjective experience of coaches in arts-based coaching, the phenomenological approach, as described by Rapport and Wainwright (2006), was applied in this study.

Qualitative data were collected using in-depth interviews to understand the experiences of using the arts in coaching, the nature of the impact arts had on coaching clients was used to gather first-hand perspectives by participant coaches through open-ended discovery questions.

The target population consisted of practicing coaches who specifically used art in the context of coaching and organisational facilitation. The sample of 13 participants was sourced through referrals from within the networks and associations of the coaching fraternity, and individual participation was voluntary. Please see Appendix 1 on page 10 for the demographic information on the participant coaches, detailing pseudo-name, country, gender, age, field of study, supplemental development in arts and coaching; years of experience using arts in coaching; preferred arts-based methods (product or process) and preferred coaching engagement (individual or team)

The study found that less than 6% of the potential participants approached met the arts coaching criterion for the research. The 13 who did qualify were interviewed. Table 2 hosts the interview questions used. The interviews lasted an average of 90 min.

Braun and Clarke (2006) advocated the usefulness of thematic analysis as a ‘accessible and theoretically-flexible approach to analysing qualitative data’ (p. 2) and went on to outline what it is in relation to other qualitative analytic methods thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to ‘other qualitative analytic methods which search for patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions’ (p. 2). The guidelines offered by these two authors were followed to distil themes.

The 13 coaches who took part in the study were from diverse demographic and organisational backgrounds in South Africa, Portugal and India. Each coach displayed evidence of having had sufficient practice with a form of art process or art product in their coaching or facilitation sessions.

Most of the participants had a background in social sciences with a specific leaning towards psychology, whilst one participant had a health sciences background, one a mathematical sciences background and two a technology background. An observation in respect of the demographics of the participants was that only one coach had majored in art in their social science undergraduate studies. The other 12 participants had no formal coursework related to the arts at the undergraduate level. Every participant had been undergoing continuous professional development in their art coaching practices, and this echoed the findings by Eisner (1998, 2002) that proficiency in arts-based coaching can be developed formally and experientially over time. The average number of years of experience in art coaching was over 10, and eight focused on group organisational coaching.

The participants had the following preferences in respect of coaching genres aligned to their respective niches and interests: life coaching, leadership coaching, executive and management coaching, team coaching, transformational coaching and career transition coaching. There were no obvious limiting conditions except that the arts could only be used effectively within the confines of time, venue and resources available for the coaching sessions. Furthermore, the participants used the arts across all age groups of clients.

Only three participants focused on, or preferred, art product over the art process. The rest preferred the art process. The preference for process over product is revealed in the comments below:

Participants’ subjective views on outcomes having been achieved include Aha-moments, a stronger focus on goals, willingness to use their creativity, changes in perception about people and more positivity – seeing potential solutions and outcomes and not just problems. Although participants reported an improvement in the ability and willingness to reflect on the outcomes of sessions, they could not all clearly articulate a supporting theory that explained the relationship between art and reflection. What they did agree on were five key drivers, which are laid out in the paragraphs below.

This study focused on the perspectives of coaches and did not include coaching clients in the convenience sample, and thus, the results provide a valuable, but limited view of the role of art in fostering critical reflection. It is advised that further research be done to include coaching clients’ perspectives of the use of art and how it influences their reflection capacities.

Further research in the form of a comparative study that analyses the efficacy between the various drivers of critical reflection mentioned in this study could augment further theoretical perspectives on the dynamics of critical reflection.

From a business perspective, a focused study that quantitatively researches the accelerated delivery of coaching results would be beneficial. Such a study would need to compare the scenarios of conventional management coaching approaches versus management coaching using the arts as a tool. Such a comparative study could possibly indicate the quantity and quality of improved results because of the intentional use of arts-based coaching approaches.

Adult learning theory points to critical reflection as a prerequisite to learning, development and transformation – which are all attributes of personal development and organisational development at a collective level. Critical reflection is also a key habitual action that needs intentional focus to succeed because it does not come naturally to people. Engagement with art is an example of such an intentional intervention. The literature has revealed that arts-based coaching shares many common attributes with adult learning theory, and the association has suggested that critical reflection also takes place during experiences with the arts. This study found empirical evidence that supported this notion. A similar study by Hughes (2009) using sculpture supports the findings of this article. Hughes (2009) stated that the use of art-based learning is a way of reflecting on the experience in the following ways:

The research identified some of the potential enablers of critical reflection when the arts are used, and these are multiple sensory stimuli, externalisation, unconscious connection, emotional engagement, silence and new neural pathways. These drivers of critical reflection are more evident in the experience of making art than in viewing art.

The findings of this research have implications for coaches who are seeking additional mechanisms to foster the key process of critical reflection as a precursor to changed perspectives, re-considering values and the setting and achieving goals. It is recommended that the coaching profession consider developing and growing its exposure to the arts via formal arts therapy coursework or training.

The identification of the key drivers of critical reflection has implications for businesses. Opportunities exist to intentionally introduce arts-based methods in organisational interventions that promote the adoption of new insights, changed perspectives and stronger focus, both at individual and organisational levels. Moreover, as leadership development is supported, in part, by enhanced self-awareness, insights, learning and changed perspectives, it could also benefit from arts-based interventions. As making art – as opposed to viewing art – is more directly associated with critical reflection and positive outcomes, businesses should consider adding more experiences of making art during their organisational interventions. It is important to remain cognisant of the fact that the use of the arts should not necessarily be relied on as the only form of organisational intervention but as an additional approach.

In summary, arts-based methods can be used as a supporting tool for business when learning, changed perspectives and transformation are required or when more innovative cultures need to be created/enhanced.